Benchmark III

Our task is to investigate the situation in the world in the field of WMD, to study the main treaties and conventions which subject is WMD and to show participants and not participants of these treaties on the maps.

Since the time of creation of WMD and realization by people of its destructive power (World War I, Hiroshima, Nagasaki and so on) heads of many states have been signing various treaties, conventions, agreements and other official documents to protect their nations and environment of the country and its borders. In these treaties they ban and limit developments, designs, tests, proliferation, stockpiles of WMD. They try to control all the spheres where it can be used. For these purposes international inspections are sent to different parts of the world. Even some nuclear-free zones are marked in the world.

Biological Weapons Convention

(Convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons and on their destruction)

The parties undertake not to develop, produce, stockpile, or acquire biological agents or toxins "of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective, and other peaceful purposes," as well as weapons and means of delivery.

The convention was opened for signature at Washington, London, and Moscow on April 10, 1972. President Ford signed instruments of ratification on January 22, 1975. At the second Review Conference in September 1986, the parties agreed to implement data exchange measures to enhance confidence and to promote cooperation in areas of permitted biological activities. The third Review Conference in September 1991 created an Ad Hoc Group of Governmental Experts to evaluate potential verification measures. The Special Conference, held in September 1994, established an Ad Hoc Group to draft proposals to strengthen the Convention.

159 states have signed the Convention, 141 states have only ratified it.

Some republics of the former USSR and several countries in Africa didn’t take part in this Convention. The situation in South Asia and Middle East is quite stable. Only Israel may be dangerous in this sphere because it is not a participant of this Convention either. (See Addendum 1) (Bibl. - 1)

Chemical Weapons Convention

(Convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction)

The CWC bans the production, acquisition, stockpiling, direct or indirect transfer chemical weapons. It also prohibits the use or preparation for use of CW and the assistance, encouragement, or inducement of anyone else to engage in activities prohibited by the CWC. Each State Party undertakes to destroy the chemical weapons and any chemical weapons production facilities it owns or possesses. The CWC penalizes countries that do not join by inhibiting their access to certain treaty-controlled chemicals. The CWC regime monitors commercial facilities that produce, process or consume dual-use chemicals to ensure they are not diverted for prohibited purposes.

Signed by 130 countries in Paris on Jan. 12, 1993, the CWC entered into force on April 29, 1997. Nowadays 168 countries have signed the CWC, of which 107 have ratified it. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) in The Hague, the Netherlands, is responsible for implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).

Many countries have signed and ratified CWC but again our attention is paid to the republics of the former USSR and African continent.

There also a number of states in the Middle East that haven’t signed the Convention. These are Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt. The Convention haven’t been ratified by Israel, Afghanistan, the Arab Emirates, Yemen and counties of South-East Asia. (See Addendum 2) (Bibl. - 2)

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

The Treaty of the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also referred to as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), was opened for signature on 01 July 1968, and signed on that date by the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and 59 other countries.

The Treaty entered into force with the deposit of US ratification on 05 March 1970.

The Treaty obligates the five acknowledged nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, France, and China) not to transfer nuclear weapons, other nuclear explosive devices, or their technology to any non-nuclear-weapon state. Non-nuclear-weapon States Parties undertake not to acquire or produce nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive devices. They are required also to accept safeguards to detect diversions of nuclear materials from peaceful activities, such as power generation, to the production of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. This must be done in accordance with an individual safeguards agreement, concluded between each non-nuclear-weapon State Party and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Under these agreements, all nuclear materials in peaceful civil facilities under the jurisdiction of the state must be declared to the IAEA, whose inspectors have routine access to the facilities for periodic monitoring and inspections. If information from routine inspections is not sufficient to fulfill its responsibilities, the IAEA may consult with the state regarding special inspections within or outside declared facilities.

In accordance with the terms of the NPT, on May 11, 1995 more than 170 countries attended the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference (NPTREC) in New York. Three decisions and one resolution emanated from NPTREC.

First, the NPT was extended for an indefinite duration and without conditions.

Second, Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament were worked out to guide the parties to the treaty in the next phase of its implementation.

Third, an enhanced review process was established for future review conferences.

Finally, a resolution endorsed the establishment of a zone free of weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East.

China acceeded to the NPT on 09 March 1992, and France acceded on 03 August 1992.

In 1996, Belarus joined Ukraine and Kazakhstan in removing and transferring to the Russian Federation the last of the remaining former Soviet nuclear weapons located within their territories, and each of these nations has become a State Party to the NPT, as a non-nuclear-weapon state.

In June 1997 Brazil became a State Party to the NPT.

The NPT is the most widely accepted arms control agreement. To date a total of 187 states were Parties to the NPT.

India, Pakistan, Israel and Cuba, that is only going to join the treaty, were the only states that were not members of the NPT.

The Indian and Pakistani say that the Treaty has an unfair character. They wonder why only 5 states are nuclear powers and the others aren’t allowed to have it, even for their national defense. But these five states and most of other are against official having of nuclear weapon by India and Pakistan.

In fact, they have nuclear weapon but according to the law they mustn’t have it. Besides, all the participants of this Treaty can develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. This fact is of great importance for India.

Israeli people explain their desire of having nuclear weapon: Israel (8 million people) is surrounded by a great number of Arabian states (hundreds of millions of people). It is necessary for national defense of Israel. So it doesn’t want to be nuclear-free state and can’t become a nuclear power.

There is no confirmed instance of State Party governmental transfers of nuclear weapon technology or unsafeguarded nuclear materials to any non-nuclear-weapon state. However, some non-nuclear-weapon states, such as Iraq, were able to obtain sensitive technology and/or equipment from private parties in states that are States Parties to the NPT. South Africa conducted an independent nuclear weapons production program prior to joining the NPT. However, it dismantled all of its nuclear weapons before signing the Treaty. In 1994, the United States and North Korea signed an "Agreed Framework" bringing North Korea into full compliance with its non-proliferation obligations under the NPT. North Korea affirmed its NPT member status and committed to allow implementation of its IAEA safeguards agreement. (See Addendum 3) (Bibl. -3)

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

(It’s the next step in direction of non-proliferation of nuclear weapon).

Prohibits any nuclear explosion whether for weapons or peaceful purposes. The Treaty establishes an organization to ensure implementation, which includes a Conference of States Parties, an Executive Council and a Technical Secretariat, which includes the International Data Center. The Treaty includes a Protocol which details the International Monitoring System (IMS), On-Site Inspections (OSI) and on Confidence Building Measures.

The CTBT's extensive verification regime includes: an International Monitoring System, an International Data Center, on-site inspections, and confidence-building measures. The International Monitoring System will be composed of four global monitoring regimes; 1) seismological, with 50 primary stations and 120 auxiliary stations; 2) radionuclide, with 80 stations monitoring particulates and 40 stations (to be extended to 80 in the future) monitoring noble gases; 3) hydroacoustic, (monitoring for sound waves caused by a nuclear explosion in the ocean), with 11 stations; and 4) infrasound (monitoring for very low frequency sound waves in the atmosphere which could be caused by a nuclear explosion), with 60 stations. The International Data Center, to be accessible to all States Parties, will receive, collect, process, analyze, report on, and archive data from International Monitoring System facilities. On-site inspections, to determine whether a suspected nuclear explosion detected by the monitoring stations actually occurred, can have three phases: 1) overflight/visual observation, photography, radioactivity measurement, environmental sampling, and passive seismic monitoring for aftershocks; 2) active seismic surveys, to locate underground anomalies, plus magnetic and gravitational field mapping, ground-penetrating radar surveys and electrical conductivity measurements; and 3) drilling to obtain radioactive samples.

The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) was opened for signature on September 24, 1996. President Clinton was the first to sign the Treaty. As of November 26, 2001, 164 nations have signed the CTBT and 89 states have ratified the treaty. 41 of the 44 states, those that have nuclear weapons or nuclear facilities whose signature and ratification are required to bring the treaty into force, have signed the treaty and 31 of these states have submitted their ratification of the treaty. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), India, and Pakistan have not signed or ratified the treaty. Of the 13 states that have signed, but not ratified the treaty the United States of American and the People's Republic of China are notable exceptions.

Entry into force (EIF) will occur 180 days after the date of deposit of the instruments of ratification by 44 required signatories. The 44 nations whose ratification is required for EIF must either 1) have been Conference on Disarmament (CD) members as of June 18, 1996, which formally participated in the work of the CD's 1996 session, or 2) possess nuclear research or power reactors. They must include the five acknowledged nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, France, and China) and the three threshold states (India, Pakistan, and Israel). The Indian Foreign Ministry stated in early October 1999 that India planned to try to get a consensus within the country for signing the treaty when the new parliament is in place. Pakistan has refused to sign as a deterrent to India's potential for continuing to develop its nuclear weapons, but has have indicated they want to sign.

The CTBT was negotiated over a period of two-and-a-half years in the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva. However, the CD was not able to reach a consensus decision to forward the text to the United Nations. On August 22, 1996, Australia requested the Secretary General of the United Nations to reconvene the 50th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) for the purpose of receiving and acting on the Treaty. On September 10, 1996, the UNGA adopted the CTBT by a vote of 158 to 3, with 5 abstentions.

On November 19, 1996, the signatories adopted a resolution establishing the Preparatory Commission (Prepcom) for the CTBT Organization (CTBTO). The CTBTO Prepcom consists of all signatory states, and meets in Vienna. It has established two working groups, on verification and administration, and a Provisional Technical Secretariat (PTS). Under Prepcom direction the PTS is working to establish the verification regime required by the Treaty. This includes the International Monitoring System, with global monitoring capabilities in four technologies -- seismic, hydroacoustic, radionuclide, and infrasound; the International Data Center, for receiving and processing data from the monitoring stations; and capabilities for carrying out on-site inspections, once the Treaty enters into force.

The President Clinton transmitted the CTBT to the Senate in September 1997 for its advice and consent to ratification. In his January 19 State of the Union address, President Clinton called on the Senate to approve the Treaty this year, asking the Senate to "take this vital step, approve the Treaty now to make it harder for other nations to develop nuclear arms, and to make sure we can end nuclear testing forever."

The Treaty will come in force when 44 states ratify it. (See Addendum 4)

So the USA, Russia, the UK, France and China are nuclear powers; India, Pakistan and Israel are nuclear powers unofficially.

Nuclear-Free Zones

A nuclear-free zone is an area where nuclear weapon is banned in any forms (there can’t be nuclear developments, tests or stockpiles at all), including air space. Countries situated on such area undertake not to develop, test, produce or acquire nuclear weapon; it is also banned that other states dispose, keep or test nuclear wepon on the territory of this zone. Official nuclear powers promise not to use nuclear weapon against these states and not to threaten them.

1967

1985

1995

1996

1997

CANWFZ

1959

Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America

Treaty of Tlatelolco

On February 14, 1967, the Treaty was signed at a regional meeting of Latin American countries at Tlatelolco, a section of Mexico City.

To date the Treaty had entered into force for 24 Latin American states.

South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone (SPNFZ) Treaty

Treaty of Rarotonga

In August 1985, eight members of the South Pacific Forum signed the Treaty of Rarotonga.

The Treaty is now in force for 12 of 15 Forum members.

Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (SEANWFZ)

Treaty of Bangkok

Ten Southeast Asian states signed the SEANWFZ Treaty on December 15, 1995 at the ASEAN Summit in Bangkok.

The Treaty came in force on the 28th of March, 1997. None of the five nuclear powers have signed the protocol of the Treaty. (Bibl. -4)

African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (ANWFZ)

Treaty of Pelindaba

The Treaty was opened for signature on April 11, 1996, in Cairo. The Treaty is signed by 50 states of Africa, only 8 of them have ratified it.

The Declaration

Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (Bibl. - 5)

Antarctic Treaty

The Antarctic Treaty internationalized and demilitarized the Antarctic Continent and provided for its cooperative exploration and future use.

There are 5 continents in the world. They are Australia, Africa, South America, North America and Eurasia. In Eurasia South-Eastern and Central Asia are nuclear-free zones. Latin America and the southern part of the Pacific ocean also should be noticed as nuclear-free zones. Africa is a nuclear-free zone too but it tries to compensate the absence of nuclear weapon with the possibility of developing biological and chemical weapons. So many states of Africa have not signed or ratified most of the treaties and conventions concerning biological and chemical weapons. (See Addendum 5)

In the southern area of the world there are more nuclear-free zones then in the northern area. That's why the world community should pay attention to creation of nuclear-free zones firstly in Europe, Central Asia and Middle East.

The matter of the entire prohibition of nuclear tests is still urgent. The doubtful countries India, Pakistan and North Korea don't take part in CTBT. The Treaty hasn't been ratified by two of five nuclear powers (the USA and China). Israel also hasn't ratified the treaty. The hope remains that the international community will manage to reach coming in force of this significant treaty.

All these treaties concerned well-known kinds of WMD (biological, chemical, nuclear). No treaties connected with new kinds of WMD were found. There were some information about the prohibition to develop geoghysical weapon in 1970s. Negotiations and treaties concerning new kinds of WMD are already necessary.

In spite of numerous international actions directed on limitaion of development and proliferation of various types of weapon and on the solution of regional conflicts and guarantee of stability around the world, Middle East and South Asia are still one of the "hottest" arears from the point of view of prevention of use of WMD.

The world can completely be in save only when all the states sign and ratify treaties and conventions that can guarantee WMD wouldn’t be used against them wouldn’t be produced for military purposes.