Appendix to Benchmark 1

Zverev Vladimir, Sarov, Russia

There is no common definition of the term "weapons of mass destruction". In one of the documents of the United Nations Commission on arms we can read: "The definition including nuclear weapon which works by detonation, weapon which works by radioactive materials, chemical and biological facilitiess of destruction should be given to weapon intended for mass destruction».

Some of the enumerated types of WMD have been known for many centuries, others exist only for several decades. Let's investigate them as they appeared in the world.

Biological (bacteriological) weapon is special ammunition and battle instruments with delivery devices equipped with biological facilitiess. It is intended for mass destruction of people, agricultural animals and crops. The striking action of biological weapon is based on application of pathogenic properties of microorganisms (bacterias, viruses, fungi) and poisons, produced by some bacterias. Characteristics of some infectious diseases used as biological weapon are presented in table 1.

Table 1

Disease	Way of infection transmission	Incubation period, day	Length, day
Plague	Airborne, Through flea-bites, from sick rodents	3	7-14
Anthrax	Contact with sick animals; the use of contaminated meat; inhalation of infected dust.	2-3	7-14
Glanders	The same	3	20-30
Tularemia	Inhalation of infected dust; contact with ill rodents the use of infected water	3-6	40-60
Cholera	The use of infected water, food	3	5-30
Yellow fever	Through mosquito-bites, from sick animals, people	4-6	10-14
Natural smallpox	Airborne contact; through infected subjects	12	12-24
Sapropyra	Stings of louses-carriers (from sick people)	10-14	60-90
Bird's-eye fever of rocky mountains	Stings of tongs - carriers (from sick rodents)	4-8	90-180
Zymonematosis	Inhalation of infected dust; through injured dermal covers at contact with infected spores, soil, vegetation	Several weeks	Several months
Botulism	The use of food with toxin	0,5-1,5	40-80

Historical reference: biological weapon was applied in wars in ancient times. During sieges of fortresses besiegers threw the corpses of people and animals died from infectious diseases over the walls. So it happened in 1347 during the siege of Kaffa (Feodosiya). Beleaguered threw the bodies, infected by plague, into the sea, but the disease had already penetrated into the city and began to kill people.

During the colonization of America the Europeans specially spread smallpox among the Indians, who had no immunity against this disease. Millions of people died for a short period of time.

In 1943-1944 on the ways of the Soviet troops attacks the German command created the epidemic centers of sapropyra. It was confirmed by the materials of the Nuremberg process.

Chemical weapon is weapon of mass destruction, which action is based on toxic properties of some chemical substances. Battle poisons and means of their application belong to it.

Poisons are the chemical compounds, capable to strike unprotected people and animals on large areas, to penetrate into different structures, to contaminate locality and pollute water for a long period. Missiles, air bombs, artillery shells and mines, chemical mines are equipped by them. Poisons are used as vapour, gas and aerosols (mist, smoke). They penetrate into the human organism through the organs of breathing, digestion, skin and eyes.

Poisons are divided into nerve, dermatovesical, asphyxiating, toxicant, psychical and irritant. Their characteristics are presented in table 2.

Table 2

Lethal effects	Nerve	GB (sarin) GD (soman) VX	Intended for lethal damage of enemies or to make them disabled for a long time
	Dermatovesical	H, HD, HN (mustard)
	Asphyxiating	CG (phosgene)
	Toxicant	AG (hydrocyanic acid) СК (chlorine cyan)
Temporarily disabling	Psychical	BZ	The matters, which act on nervous system of people, causing temporary alienations
Irritant (Policemen)	Irritant	CS CR DM (adamsite) CN (chlorine acetophenone)	Intended for defeat of the sensitive nervous terminations of mucous membranes, upper respiratory ducts and eyes

Historical reference: for the first time chemical weapon was applied in 1915. On April 22 grey – green stripe of mist appeared from the German positions next to Ypres. In several minutes it covered the French positions. The soldiers and officers began to choke. Poison gas chlorine burnt organs of breathing, stung lungs. Finally more than 15 thousand of French soldiers got hard intoxication, about 5 thousand them died.

On May 31, 1915 the Germans applied gas attack against Russian troops. 9 thousand people were poisoned, 1200 died.

In July 1917 English troops were fired by German mines with oily fluid near Ypres. This poison gas caused hard curable burns on skin. It quickly penetrated through clothes and, besides contaminated locality for a long period. This poison gas was called "mustard gas".

So during the First World War the new weapon – chemical - appeared.

As marked above, in 1948 the United Nations determined biological and chemical weapons as types of WMD. The United Nations experts arrived at a conclusion that application of biological and chemical weapon on a large scale can lead not only to mass destruction of people, but also to destructive consequences for natural balance.

As biological and chemical weapons are the most ancient kinds of WMD, the suggestions of their inapplicability were expressed repeatedly. Understanding that the customary rules of the international law except methods of warfare with application of poisons and contaminated materials is widely spread for a long time.

This tradition was consolidated by Geneva Protocol of 1925, according to which the application of asphyxiating, toxic substances and other similar gases and bacteriological means in wars "is forbidden".

In 1975 the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons and their destruction came into force.

In 1997 the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and their Destruction came into force.

The limited volume of this work does not allow to investigate all problems of WMD widely.