Benchmark 1

Part 4

Chart of Chemical Warfare Agents

And Their Effects

G r o u p	A g e n t s	E f f e c t s
Casualty agents:		Can cause death to its victims
Blood agents:	-arsine -cyanogen chloride -hydrogen chloride	Block oxygen utilization, or uptake from the blood, causing the body to asphyxiate
Choking agents:	-Chlorine -Diphosgene -PFIB -Phosgene	Cause injury to the respiratory system, particularly the throat, lungs, and nose
Nerve agents:	-GA (Tabun) -GB (Sarin) -GD (Soman) -GE -GF -VE -VG -VM -VX	Paralyze the respiratory muscles
Vesicants (blister agents):	-Distilled mustard -Ethyldichloroarsine -Lewisite 1 -Lewisite 2 -Lewisite 3 -Methyldichloroarsine -Mustard-Lewisite mixture -Mustard-T mixture -Nitrogen mustard 1 -Nitrogen mustard 2 -Nitrogen mustard 3 -Phenyldichloroarsine -Phosgene oxime -Sesqui mustard	Cause skin irritation, temporary/permanent blindness, or sometimes damage to the respiratory system
Harassing agents:
Riot control agents:
Lackrymators:	-CA -CN -CNB -CNC -CNS -CS
Sternutators, or Vomiting agents:	-DA -DC -DM(Adamsite)	Causes victims to vomit
Incapacitating agents:		Can incapacitate, disorientate, or paralyze its victims
Depressants:	-Morphine
Psychedelic drugs:	-Agent-15 -BZ -Lysergic acid-25 -Mescaline -Phenylcyclidine -Psilocybin
Stimulants:	-Amphetamine -Cocaine -Dexamphetamine -Methamphetamine
Toxins:	-Aflatoxin -Botulinus toxin -Ricin -Saxitoxin -Trichothecene mycotoxin	Causes death through paralysis in extremely small concentrations

How Chemical Agents Can Be Weaponized

Chemical weapons use the toxic properties of chemical substances rather than their explosive properties to produce physical or physiological effects on an enemy.

Although instances of what might be styled as chemical weapons date to antiquity, much of the lore of chemical weapons as viewed today has its origins in World War I. During that conflict “gas” (actually an aerosol or vapor) was used effectively on numerous occasions by both sides to alter the outcome of battles. A significant number of battlefield casualties were sustained.

Development of chemical weapons in World War I was predominantly the adaptation of a chemical “fill” to a standard munitions. The Germans simply opened canisters of chlorine and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. Shortly thereafter the French put phosgene in a projectile and this method became the principal means of delivery. In July 1917, the Germans employed mustard shells for the first time and simultaneously attempted to use a solid particulate emetic, diphenyl chloroarsine, as a mask breaker. Mustard, an insidious material, penetrates leather and fabrics and inflicts painful burns on the skin.

The chemicals employed before World War II can be styled as the “classical” chemical weapons. They are relatively simple substances, most of which were either common industrial chemicals or their derivatives. An example is phosgene, a choking agent (irritates the eyes and respiratory tract). Phosgene is important in industry as a chlorinating material. The second example is hydrogen cyanide, a so-called blood agent (prevents transfer to oxygen to the tissues), now is used worldwide in the manufacture of acrylic polymers.

Mental incapacitants are predominantly glycolates, whereas some of the more potent candidates for physical incapacitants have come from research on improved anesthetics. Indeed, almost all potential incapacitants are byproducts of the pharmaceutical industry and have legitimate pharmaceutical uses. The defining technologies for such incapacitating weapons, then, are the production of a physiologically effective compound in greater than practical pharmaceutical quantities and incorporation of the material in weapons. It is probable that the physical state of an incapacitant will be a particulate solid and that the practical route for effective use is by inhalation.

In our everyday life we are surrounded by a great number of chemicals, pesticides chemical agents. Even when we cook or wash clothes, draw or wash up, grow flowers or clean our homes. The more we use chemical, the more we pollute environment: water, soil, air, sometimes ourselves. Definite amount of chemicals and pesticides cause harm to all living being on our planet.

A Historical Example of the Use of Chemical Weapons

Firstly chemical agents were used as warfare agents on April 22, 1915 by the Germans in the First World War in the battle against the French. It was oily-looking substance, which inflicted painful burns and blisters requiring medical attention even at a low doses. It was chlorine gas. The Germans used it at Ypres in Belgium and after that it got its name (iprit).

In most cases it damaged to the respiratory system. Six thousand soldiers died at once or very quickly, 15 thousand victims were incapacitated.

In 1914-1918 125 ton of chemical munitions were used on battlefields.

The Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo used nerve chemical gas GB (Sarin) in Tokyo Underground for deterrence and to cause chaos, to murder people in 1995.

In the Iran-Iraq war (1982-1987) chemical weapons were used by Iraq to blunt Iranian human wave attacks.

BENCHMARK I

Part 5

Bibliography:

1)Laqueur, W. “Post-modern Terrorism” Foreign Affairs September/October (1996)

2)Hoffmann, B. Inside Terrorism.....

3)Resolution 52/164 of the United Nations general Assembly, adopted on Dec.15, 1997

4)Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, entry under Weapons of Mass Destruction, found at http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/w/06784.html

5)Kostrov, A.M. “Civil Defense” (Moscow,”Prosvescheniye”, 1991)

6)Chernogorova, V. “Talks About Nucleus” (Young Guard, 1976)

7)Myakishev,G.; Bukhovtsev, B. School-book on Physics for 11-graders (Moscow, “Prosvescheniye”, 2000)

8)Shalynets, A.; Fadeev,G. “Radioactive Agents” (Moscow, “Prosvescheniye”, 1981)

9)Pokrovsky, A. “Demonstrative Experiments in Physics Classes” (Moscow, “Prosvescheniye”, 1989)

10)RF President’s Decree (Edict) of November 30, 1995; # 1203)

11)Criminal Code of RF, art.355

12)The Federal Law # 183 (July 18, 1999) “About Export Control”

13)”Defense from WMD” (officer’s table-book, Moscow, Voenizdat, 1985)

14)Timeline “The Years of Discovery” found at http://www.nuclearfiles.org/discovery.html

15)School-book on History for 10-graders (Moscow, “Prosvescheniye”, 1999)

16)Article “Biological Warfare Agents” found at http://www.nuclearfiles.org/WMD411/biological warfare agents

Abbreviations:

BRM biological response modifiers

BW biological weapons

BWC Biological Weapons Convention

CBW chemical and biological weapons

CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

CW chemical weapons

CWC Chemical Weapons Convention

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

D-T deuterium and tritium gas

ER enhanced radiation

HE high explosives

HEU highly enriched uranium

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

GB Great Britain

Li lithium

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NBC nuclear, biological and chemical

NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

NRBC nuclear, radiological, biological and chemical (weapons)

NW nuclear weapons

RF Russian Federation

U uranium

UN United Nations

U.S. United States (of America)

VEE Venezuelan equine encephalitis