C r i t i c a l I s s u e s F o r u m________

FROM SCHOOL 125 IN SNEZHINSK, RUSSIA

Student-participant – Ivan Drokin

Teacher – consultant – Larisa Zlokazova

Benchmark 2

To begin the work on Benchmark 2 the student was asked to choose one entire region or two or more countries within either the Middle East or South Asia. He had to examine, collect and analyze historical material, periodicals, and Internet news sources. Besides, he prepared and conducted some interviews with local experts and “men on the street”.

For convenience the final product of the work on Benchmark 2 is divided into 7 parts:

PART 1 Nuclear Weapons States, defacto Nuclear Weapons States, and potential Nuclear Weapons States.

PART 2 Mideast as the most dangerous part of the world.

PART 3 The history of Israeli people.

PART 4 UN decision of 1947.

PART 5 Timeline of Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

PART 6 Reasons, which led Israel to acquire weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

PART 7 Interviews.

PART 8 Bibliography and abbreviations.

BENCHMARK 2

Part 1

In Benchmark 1 we defined and introduced weapons of mass destruction (WMD), how they work and their effects. It would be logically right to speak about those countries, which acquire WMD or can acquire in the future.

It is no longer a secret that nuclear weapons have been used to intimidate the world and to prepare the road for global domination.

Estimates of the global nuclear stockpile range from a low of about 25,000 to a high of about 35,000 suspected nuclear weapons. Below you can see the map and the countries, which we now call Nuclear Weapons States, defacto Nuclear Weapons States, and potential Nuclear Weapons States.

Nuclear Weapons States, Who They Are And How Many Weapons Each Possesses

Estimates of the global nuclear stockpile range from a low of 24,700 to a high of 33,307 suspected nuclear weapons. Below is a country breakdown of nuclear stockpiles.

Declared Nuclear Weapons States (5)

China: china has 290 suspected strategic nuclear weapons, with an emphasis on land-based missiles, and 120 non-strategic nuclear weapons for a suspected total 400-410 nuclear weapons. China currently has only one working ballistic missile submarine. Information about China’s tactical nuclear weapons is limited and there is no official evidence of their existence.

France: France has an estimated total of 400-482 strategic nuclear weapons. The France arsenal is currently undergoing a widespread modernization, including is sea-based deterrent force. In January 2000, France deployed a second Triomphant class submarine and a third was expected to enter intro service in 2001. France also plans to deploy two more by 2007. Each submarine carries 16 missiles with 6 nuclear warheads on each.

Russia: Russia has 6,000 suspected strategic nuclear weapons and between 7,000 and 15,000 suspected non-strategic nuclear weapons for a suspected total of some 13,000-20,000 nuclear weapons. Although Russia has made dramatic reductions since the end of the Cold War, some nuclear modernization continues. In 2000, the Russian Duma signed and ratified Start II. However, its entrance into force is depended on US plans to deploy a national missile defense (NMD) system. Also, President Vladimir Putin made an offer US President Bill Clinton to reduce strategic weapons to 1,000-1,500 each, a number below proposed START III levels of 2,000-2,5000. Russia maintains some 2,000-2,500 nuclear weapons on high-alert status, ready to launch at a moment’s notice.

United Kingdom: The United Kingdom nuclear capability has been concentrated on its Triden submarine fleet under the command of the British Royal Navy. The submarines are powered by nuclear reactors and the missiles in the UK Trident submarines are leased from US. British nuclear weapons are incorporated into NATO strategic planning and are depended on targeting information from the US. According to the UK Strategic Defense Review, there is always “one submarine on patrol at a time, carrying a reduced load of 48 warheads.” There are 58 missiles in service and a “stockpile of less than 200 operationally available warheads.” Each warhead has an explosive yield of 100 kilotons, which is approximately 5 times the destructive power of the plutonium bomb dropped on Nagasaki.

United States: The United States has 7,300 suspected strategic nuclear weapons and between 4,700 and 11,700 suspected non-strategic nuclear Weapons for a suspected total of 10,500-12,000 nuclear weapons. The US is the only country to station land-based nuclear weapons outside of its borders. Nuclear modernization continues in the US with scheduled modifications on B-2’s and sea-launched ballistic missiles. The US also has plans to deploy a national missile defense (NMD) system, despite warnings from Russia, China and even some allies that such a system will initiate a new arms race. Like Russia, the US also maintains some 2,000-2,500 nuclear weapons on “hair-trigger” alert, ready to launch at a moment’s notice. Although the Department of Defense (DoD) claims that these weapons are not targeted at any specific country, the missiles can be assigned a target on short notice.

Defacto Nuclear Weapons States (3)

India: India has a suspected stockpile of separated weapons-grade plutonium to produce at least 85 to 90 weapons. It also has a ballistic missile submarine, “Sagarica,” under development with aid from Russia.

Israel: Israel has enough estimated weapons-grave fissile material to produce 100 suspected nuclear weapons. Israel also has three Dolphin class submarine and is reportedly developing submarine-launched cruise missile (SLCM) capability.

Pakistan: Pakistan has suspected capability of between 15 and 25 nuclear weapons.

Potential Nuclear Weapons States

Iran: Iran is suspected to be actively pursuing a nuclear weapons program, but as of yet is no considered to have nuclear weapons capability.

Iraq: Iraq is suspected to be actively pursuing a nuclear weapons program, but as of yet is no considered to have nuclear weapons capability.

Libya: Libya has a theoretical capability of nuclear weapons in the form of Scud and FROG

Missiles and delivered be medium-range Tu-22 bombers.

North Korea: According to US, Chinese and Russian intelligence source, North Korea has a many as 10 operational nuclear warheads for its missiles and nuclear devices that can be carried by truck, boat or aircraft.

The remaining countries in the world have NO nuclear weapons. There are 433 nuclear reactors worldwide. There are 44 countries with nuclear reactors. Any country with a nuclear reactor is considered to have the capability to produce nuclear weapons.

BENCHMARK 2

PART 2

Iran Иран -- флаг страны

Iran remains one of the most active countries seeking to acquire WMD and ACW technology from abroad. In doing so, Tehran is attempting to develop an indigenous capability to produce various types of weapons—chemical, biological, and nuclear—and their delivery systems.

Iran, a Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) party, already has manufactured and stockpiled several thousand tons of chemical weapons, including blister, blood, and choking agents, and the bombs and artillery shells for delivering them. During the first half of 2000, Tehran continued to seek production technology, training, expertise, equipment, and chemicals that could be used as precursor agents in its chemical warfare (CW) program .

Iran probably began its offensive BW program during the Iran-Iraq war, aria it may have some limited capability for BW deployment.

Iran sought nuclear-related equipment, material, and technical expertise from a variety of sources, especially in Russia. Work continues on the construction of a 1.000-megawatt nuclear power reactor at Bushehr that will be subject to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards

Iran claims that it is attempting to establish fuel-cycle capabilities to support its civilian energy program. In that guise, it seeks to obtain turnkey facilities, such as a uranium conversion facility that, in fact, could be used in any number of ways to support fissile material production needed for a nuclear weapon. We suspect that Tehran most likely is interested in acquiring foreign fissile material and technology for weapons development as part of its overall nuclear weapons program.

Iran already is producing Scud short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs) and has built and publicly displayed prototypes for the Shahab-3 medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM). In addition, Iran's Defense Minister in 1999 publicly acknowledged the development of a Shahab-4, originally calling it a more capable ballistic missile than the Shahab-3 but later categorizing it as solely a space launch vehicle with no military applications. Iran's Defense Minister also has publicly mentioned a "Shahab 5," although he said that development had not yet begun.

Iraq

We do not have any direct evidence that Iraq has used the period since Desert Fox to reconstitute its WMD programs, although given its past behavior, this type of activity must be regarded as likely. We assess that since the suspension of UN inspections in December of 1998, Baghdad has had the capability to reinitiate both its CW and BW programs within a few weeks to months. Without an inspection monitoring program, however, it is more difficult to determine if Iraq has done so.

North Korea

Pyongyang continues to acquire raw materials from out-of-country entities needed for its WMD and ballistic missile programs. During this time frame, North Korea continued procurement of raw materials and components for its ballistic missile programs from various foreign sources, especially through firms in China. We assess that North Korea is capable of producing and delivering via munitions a wide variety of chemical and biological agents.

During the first half of 2000, Pyongyang sought to procure technology worldwide that could have applications in its nuclear program, but we do not know of any procurement directly linked to the nuclear weapons program. We assess that North Korea has produced enough plutonium for at least one, and possibly two, nuclear weapons. The United States and North Korea are nearing completion on the joint project of canning spent fuel from the Yongbyon complex for long-term storage and ultimate shipment out of the North in accordance with the 1994 Agreed Framework. That reactor fuel contains enough plutonium for several more weapons.

North Korea continues to seek conventional arms.

Libya

Libya remains heavily dependent on foreign suppliers for precursor chemicals and other key CW-related equipment. Libya still appears to have a goal of establishing an offensive CW capability and an indigenous production capability for weapons. Evidence suggests Libya also is seeking to acquire the capability to develop and produce BW agents.

Libya continues to develop its nascent nuclear research and development program .

Following the suspension of UN sanctions, Libya has negotiated deals—reported to be worth up to $100 million, according to Russian press—with Russian firms for conventional weapons, munitions, and upgrades and refurbishment for its existing inventory of Soviet-era weapons.

Syria

Syria sought CW-related precursors and expertise from foreign sources. Damascus already has a stockpile of the nerve agent sarin, and it would appear that Syria is trying to develop more toxic and persistent nerve agents. Syria remains dependent on foreign sources for key elements of its CW program, including precursor chemicals and key production equipment. It is highly probable that Syria also is developing an offensive BW capability.

The potential for Syria's embryonic nuclear research and development program is also possible.

Sudan

In the WMD arena, Sudan has been developing the capability to produce chemical weapons for many years. In this pursuit, It has obtained help from entities in other countries, principally Iraq. Given its history in developing chemical weapons and its close relationship with Iraq, Sudan may be interested in a BW program as well.

India

India continues its nuclear weapons development program, for which its underground nuclear tests in May 1998 were a significant milestone. The acquisition of foreign equipment could benefit New Delhi in its efforts to develop and produce more sophisticated nuclear weapons. India obtained some foreign assistance for its civilian nuclear power program during the first half of 2000, primarily from Russia.

India continues to rely on foreign assistance for key missile and dual-use technologies, where it still lacks engineering or production expertise in ballistic missile development. Entities in Russia and Western Europe remained the primary conduits of missile-related technology transfers during the first half of 2000. New Delhi flight-tested three short-range ballistic missiles between January and June 2000—the Prithvi-ll in February and June, and the Dhanush in April.

India continues an across-the-board modernization of its armed forces through ACW, mostly from Russia, although many of its key programs have been plagued by delays. During the reporting period, New Delhi continued negotiations with Moscow for 310 T-90S main battle tanks, Su-30 fighter aircraft production, A-50 Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) aircraft, Tu-22M Backfire maritime strike bombers, and an aircraft carrier, according to press reports. India also continues to explore options for leasing or purchasing several AWACS systems from other entities. India has also received its first delivery of Russian Krasnopol laser-guided artillery rounds to be used in its Swedish-built FH-77 155-mm howitzers, negotiated the purchase of unmanned aerial vehicles from Israel, and considered offers for jet trainer aircraft from France and the United Kingdom.

Pakistan

Pakistan continued to acquire nuclear-related and dual-use equipment and materials from various sources—principally in Western Europe. Islamabad has a well-developed nuclear weapons program, as evidenced by its first nuclear weapons tests in late May 1998. Acquisition of nuclear-related goods from foreign sources will remain important if Pakistan chooses to develop more advanced nuclear weapons. China, which has provided extensive support in the past to Islamabad's nuclear weapons and ballistic missile programs, in May 1996 pledged that it would not provide assistance to unsafeguarded nuclear facilities in any state, including Pakistan. We cannot rule out, however, some continued contacts between Chinese entities and entities involved in Pakistan's nuclear weapons development.

Pakistan continues to rely on China and France for its ACW requirements. Pakistan received eight upgraded Mirage III/V fighters from France and continued negotiations to purchase an additional 50 F-7 fighters from China.

Egypt

Egypt continues its effort to develop and produce ballistic missiles with the assistance of North Korea. This activity is part of a long-running program of ballistic missile cooperation between these two countries.

Nuclear Capabilities By Country

	Nuclear
Egypt	Research
Iran	Development
Iran	Weaponization
Israel	Deployed
Saudi Arabia	None?
Syria	Research
Turkey	Research
United States	Deployed
Yemen	Yemen

Deployed-Nuclear weapons integrated in military forces and ready for use in the event of conflict.

Stockpiled- Produced significant quantity of nuclear weapons, but these are not stored in close proximity to military units that would employ them.

Weaponization - In the process of integrating nuclear explosives with delivery systems, such as aerial bombs, missile warheads, etc.

Production capability - Able to produce significant quantity of fissile nuclear material, but not known to have done so.

Development - Engaged in laboratory- or pilot-scale activities to develop production capability for fissile material.

Research - Engaged in dual-use research with peaceful civilian applications, but that can also be used to build technical capacity and/or infrastructure necessary for NBC development and production.

Dismantling - Removing nuclear weapons from deployment to storage areas and destroying agents and munitions.

Nuclear Programs By Country

Egypt

Nuclear

No evidence of a weapons program, however:
22MW and 2MW research reactors at Inshas, both under IAEA safeguards.
Has engaged only in basic scientific research since the 1960s.
Acceded to the NPT on 2/26/81; signed the CTBT on 10/14/96.
Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (AEA).

Iran

Nuclear

Large nuclear development program to construct power reactors for civilian energy generation, reliant on Russian assistance.
5MW and 30KW research reactors and .01KW critical assembly at Esfahan and Tehran, which are under IAEA safeguards.
US and Israeli officials believe Iran seeks to acquire the capability to build nuclear weapons.
Ratified the NPT on 2/20/70; signed the CTBT on 9/24/96.

Israel

Nuclear

Sophisticated nuclear weapons program with an estimated 100-200 weapons, which can be delivered by ballistic missiles or aircraft.
Nuclear arsenal may include thermonuclear weapons.
150MW heavy water reactor and plutonium reprocessing facility at Dimona, which are not under IAEA safeguards.
IRR-1 5MW research reactor at Soreq, under IAEA safeguards.
Not a signatory of the NPT; signed the CTBT on 9/25/96.

Iraq

Nuclear

With sufficient black-market uranium or plutonium, Iraq probably could fabricate a nuclear weapon.
If undetected and unobstructed, could produce weapons-grade fissile material within several years.
Engaged in clandestine procurement of special nuclear weapon-related equipment.
Retains large and experienced pool of nuclear scientists and technicians.
Retains nuclear weapons design, and may retain related components and software.
Repeatedly violated its obligations under the NPT, which Iraq ratified on 10/29/69.
Repeatedly violated its obligations under United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 687, which mandates destruction of Iraq's nuclear weapon capabilities.
Until halted by Coalition air attacks and UNSCOM disarmament efforts, Iraq had an extensive nuclear weapon development program that began in 1972, involved 10,000 personnel, and had a multi-year budget totaling approximately $10 billion.
In 1990, Iraq also launched a crash program to divert reactor fuel under IAEA safeguards to produce nuclear weapons.
Considered two delivery options for nuclear weapons: either using unmodified al-Hussein ballistic missile with 300km range, or producing Al-Hussein derivative with 650km range.
In 1987, Iraq reportedly field tested a radiological bomb.

Saudi Arabia

Nuclear

No confirmed evidence of a nuclear weapons program.
No research or power reactors.
Acceded to the NPT on 10/3/88; has not signed the CTBT.
Atomic Energy Research Institute established in 1988.

Sudan

Nuclear

No evidence of a nuclear weapons program.
Alleged transshipment point for nuclear smuggling.
No research or power reactors.
Acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) on 10/31/73; has not signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).

Syria

Nuclear

No evidence of a nuclear weapons program.
Nuclear technological development remains at the research stage.
One research reactor in Damascus, under IAEA safeguards.
Ratified the XPT on 9/24/69: has not signed the CTBT.

Turkey

Nuclear

No evidence of a nuclear weapons program.
Plans to build two nuclear power reactors by the year 2006.
5MW research reactor at the Cekmece Nuclear Research and Training Centre and 250KW research reactor at the Istanbul Technical Institute; both facilities are under IAEA safeguards.
15 B-61 nuclear gravity bombs deployed by the United States at In9irlik Air Base.
Ratified the NPT on 4/17/80; signed the CTBT on 9/24/96, but has not ratified the treaty.

BENCHMARK 2

PART 3 Geography and Early History

The land variously called Israel and Palestine is a small, (10,000 square miles at present) land at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. During its long history, its area, population and ownership varied greatly. The present state of Israel formally occupies all the land from the Jordan river to the Mediterranean ocean, bounded by Egypt in the south, Lebanon in the north, and Jordan in the East. The recognized borders of Israel constitute about 78% of the land. The remainder is divided between land occupied by Israel since the 1967 6-day war and the autonomous regions under the control of the Palestinian autonomy. The Gaza strip occupies an additional 141 square miles south of Israel along the sea coast, and is mostly under the control of the Palestinian authority with small areas occupied by Israeli settlements.

Palestine has been settled continuously for tens of thousands of years. Amorites, Canaanites, and other Semitic peoples related to the Phoenicians of Tyre entered the area about 2000 B.C. The area became known as the Land of Canaan.

The Jewish Kingdoms

Some time between about 1800 and 1500 B.C., a Semitic people called Hebrews (hapiru) left Mesopotamia and settled in Canaan. According to the Bible, Moses led the Israelites, or a portion of them, out of Egypt.

King David conquered Jerusalem about 1000 B.C. and established an Israelite kingdom, but the kingdom. was divided into Judea in the south and Israel in the north following the death of David's son, Solomon. Jerusalem remained the center of Jewish sovereignty and of Jewish worship, up to the Jewish revolt in 133 AD.

The Assyrians conquered Israel in 722 or 721 B.C. The Babylonians conquered Judah in 587 or 586 B.C. destroyed Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, and exiled a large number of Jews. About 50 years later, the Persian king Cyrus conquered Babylonia. The Persians ruled the land from about 530 to 331 B.C. Alexander the Great then conquered the Persian Empire. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., his generals divided his empire. Seleucus, founded a dynasty that gained control of much of Palestine about 200 B.C. At first, the new rulers, called Seleucids, allowed the practice of Judaism. In 167 B.C., the Jews at least established a large degree of autonomy, forming a kingdom with its capital in Jerusalem. The kingdom received Roman "protection" in 164 B.C.

From Roman to Ottoman Rule

About 61 B.C., Roman troops under Pompei invaded Judah and sacked Jerusalem. The land came under Roman control. The Romans called the area Judea. Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem in the early years of Roman rule. Roman rulers put down Jewish revolts in about A.D. 70 and A.D. 132. In A.D. 135, the Romans drove the Jews out of Jerusalem. The Romans named the area Palaestina, at about this time.

Growth of Roman Empire in III BC-II AD 1

Palestine was governed by the Roman Empire until the A.D. 300's and then by the Byzantine Empire. In time, Christianity spread to most of Palestine.

Byzantium (Empire) in YI-YII AD

During the A.D. 600's, Muslim Arab armies moved north from Arabia to conquer most of the Middle East, including Palestine. Muslim powers controlled the region until the early 1900's.

Arabian occupation in YII-IX AD

The Seljuk Turks gained control of Jerusalem in 1071. Seljuk rule of Palestine lasted less than 30 years. Christian crusaders from Europe captured Jerusalem in 1099. A great slaughter of the Jewish and Muslim defenders followed, and no Jews were allowed to live in Jerusalem. The crusaders held the city until 1187, when the Muslim ruler Saladin attacked Palestine and took control of Jerusalem.

In the mid-1200's, Mamelukes based in Egypt established an empire that in time included the area of Palestine. Arab-speaking Muslims made up most of Palestine's population. Beginning in the late 1300's, Jews from Spain and other Mediterranean lands settled in Jerusalem and other parts of the land. The Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamelukes in 1517, and Palestine became part of the Ottoman Empire

In 1798, Napoleon entered the land. The war with Napoleon and subsequent misadministration by Egyptian and Ottoman rulers, reduced the population of Palestine. By 1880, about 24,000 Jews were living in Palestine, out of a population of about 400,000.

Beginning in the late 1800's, oppression of Jews in Eastern Europe catalyzed emigration of Jews to Palestine.They envisioned the population of Palestine by millions of European Jews who would soon form a decisive majority in the land. Later they established the new city of Tel Aviv, north of Jaffa. At the same time, Palestine's Arab population grew rapidly. By 1914, the total population of Palestine stood at about 700,000. About 615,000 were Arabs, and 85,000 to 100,000 were Jews.

During World War I (1914-1918), the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and Austria-Hungary against the Allies. An Ottoman military government ruled Palestine. The war was hard on both Jewish and Arab populations. For a time, the Turkish military governor ordered internment and deportation of all foreign nationals. large number of Jews were forced to flee Palestine during the war.

The British Mandate

In 1917, Britain issued the Balfour Declaration. The declaration stated Britain's support for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine. After the war, the League of Nations divided much of the Ottoman Empire into mandated territories. In 1920, Britain received a provisional mandate over Palestine, which would extend west and east of the River Jordan.

The Arabs opposed the idea of a Jewish national home, considering that the areas now called Palestine were their land.

At the instigation of US President Wilson, the King Crane commission had been dispatched to hear the views of the inhabitants. At the commission hearings, Aref Pasha Dajani expressed this opinion about the Jews, "Their history and their past proves that it is impossible to live with them. In all the countries where they are at present, they are not wanted...because they always arrive to suck the blood of everybody..."

By this time, Zionists had recognized the inevitability of conflict with the Palestinian Arabs. David Ben Gurion, who would lead the Yishuv (the name for the Jewish community in Palestine) and go on to be the first Prime Minister of Israel, told a meeting of the governing body of the Jewish "Yishuv" in 1919 "But not everybody sees that there is no solution to this question...We as a nation, want this country to be ours, the Arabs as a nation, want this country to be theirs."

In the spring of 1920, spring of 1921 and summer of 1929 the violence led to the formation of the Hagana Jewish self-defense organization.

Jewish immigration swelled in the 1930s, driven by persecution in Eastern Europe and Nazi Germany. In 1936 the Arab Revolt led by Haj Amin Al-Husseini broke out. Hundreds of Arabs and Jews were killed. The Husseini family killed both Jews and members of Palestinian Arab families opposed to their hegemony.

The Peel and Woodhead commissions of 1937 and 1938 recommended partitioning Palestine into a small Jewish state and a large Arab one. The commission’s recommendations also included voluntary transfer of Arabs and Jews to separate the populations. The Jewish leadership considered the plan but the Arab leadership rejected the plan outright.

During World War II (1939-1945), many Palestinian Arabs and Jews joined the Allied forces. Jews had a special motivation for fighting the Nazis. After the war, it was discovered that the Germans had murdered about six million Jews in Europe, in the Holocaust. These people had been trapped in Europe, because virtually no country would allow them to flee the Nazis. The British restriction of immigration to Palestine had cost hundreds of thousands of lives. The Jews were now desperate to bring the remaining Jews of Europe, about 250,000 people being held in displaced persons camps, to Palestine.

BENCHMARK 2

PART 4, 5

The United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended that Palestine be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish state. The commission called for Jerusalem to be put under international administration The UN General Assembly adopted this plan on Nov. 29, 1947 as UN Resolution (GA 181), owing to support of both the US and the Soviet Union, and in particular, the personal support of US President Harry S.Truman. Many factors contributed to Truman's decision to support partition, including domestic politics and intense Zionist lobbying, no doubt. Truman wrote in his diary, however, “I think the proper thing to do, and the thing I have been doing, is to do what I think is right and let them all go to hell."

Middle East after 1967 War

On May 14, 1948, the Jews proclaimed the independent state of Israel. The next day, neighboring Arab nations attacked Israel. When the fighting ended in 1949, Israel held territories beyond the boundaries set by the UN plan - a total of 78% of the area west of the River Jordan. The borders were not recognized by Arab states, which continued to refuse to recognize Israel.

The Jews accepted the UN decision, but the Arabs rejected it. The resolution divided the land into two approximately equal portions. At the time of partition, slightly less than half of the land of Palestine was owned by Arabs, and about 8% was owned by Jews or the Jewish Agency. There were about 600,000 Jews in Palestine, almost all living in the areas allotted to the Jewish state or in the internationalized zone of Jerusalem, and about 1.2 million Arabs. The allocation of land by Resolution 181 was intended to produce two areas with Jewish and Arab majorities respectively. Jerusalem and environs were to be internationalized.

It soon became evident that the scheme could not work.

The Arab League instituted an economic boycott against Israel that was partly honored by most industrial nations and continued in force until the 1990s.

Tension began developing between Israel and Arab countries in the 1960s. Israel began to implement its National Water Carrier plan, which pumps water from the Sea of Galilee to irrigate south and central Israel.

The Syrians and Lebanese began to implement the diversions. Israel responded by firing on the tractors and equipment doing the work in Syria, using increasingly accurate and long- range guns as the Syrians moved the equipment from the border.

Against this background, in Mid-May, 1967, Egyptian President Gamal Nasser again closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and dismissed the UN peace force from the Sinai Peninsula. Nasser said on May 27, "Our basic objective will be the destruction of Israel. The Arab people want to fight." On May 28 he added: "We will not accept any...coexistence with Israel...Today the issue is not the establishment of peace between the Arab states and Israel...The war with Israel is in effect since 1948."

On May 30, Jordan signed a defense pact with Egypt, readying itself for war. King Hussein stated: "The armies of Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon are poised on the borders of Israel...to face the challenge, while standing behind us are the armies of Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, Sudan and the whole Arab nation. This act will astound the world. Today they will know that the Arabs are arranged for battle, the critical hour has arrived. We have reached the stage of serious action and not declarations."

On June 4, Iraq likewise joined a military alliance with Egypt and committed itself to war. On May 31, the Iraqi President Rahman Aref announced, "This is our opportunity to wipe out the ignominy which has been with us since 1948. Our goal is clear--to wipe Israel off the map."

Israel attacked the Egyptians beginning on June 5, 1967. In the first hours of the war, Israel destroyed over 400 enemy aircraft to achieve total air superiority. Israeli troops quickly reconquered the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza. Jordanian artillery began firing at Jerusalem on the first day of the war. During the first days of the war, Syrian artillery based in the Golan Heights.

The 1967 6-Day war changed the perceived balance of power in the Middle East and created a new reality. Israel had acquired extensive territories - the Sinai Desert, the Golan Heights and the West Bank, that were several times larger than the 1948 borders

After the war, the fate of the Palestinians came to play a large role in the Arab-Israeli struggle. The Fatah organization (The Movement for Liberation of Palestine) was founded about 1957 (though it was formalized much later), and the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) was founded in 1964. In time, the Palestine Liberation Organization became recognized by all the Arab states as the representative of the Palestinian people.

August, September of 1967 the Khartoum Arab summit, which seemed to shut the door on the possibility of negotiations with Israel or recognition of Israel in any form.

August 1970, a second cease fire was signed. Nasser died shortly thereafter, and was replaced by Anwar Sadat.

October 1973, Egypt and Syria launched another war against Israel.

1975 a second landmark was the “Zionism is Racism” resolution passed by the UN.

1977 Settlement expansion became official Israeli policy after the opposition revisionist Likud party came to power.

1978 Egypt and Israel signed the Camp David framework agreements.

1979 Peace treaty.

1982 Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula.

1987 a revolt called the Intifadeh began in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.

September 13, 1993 the historic Oslo accord is signed at the White House. Palestinians and Israelis agree to recognize the other’s right to exist. Soon Israel begins its promised withdrawal from lands occupied since 1967 war; Jericho and Gaza are transferred to the Palestinians.

1994 Israel and Jordan signed a Peace treaty.

October 14, 1994 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, and Yasser Arafat are awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their roles in the Oslo accord.

September 28, 1995 in Washington, D.C., Rabin and Arafat signed the Oslo II Agreement. Under Oslo II, the West Bank is divided into three areas: area A, which is under exclusive Palestinian control; Area B, where Palestinians have civilian control and Israelis control security; and Area C, which is controlled exclusively by Israel.

November 4, 1995 Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated by a Jewish extremist. He is succeeded by Peres.

January 20, 1996 Palestinian elections are held as required by the Oslo accord. Palestinians endorse the peace process by giving Arafat an overwhelming victory.

February 25-March 4, 1996 Three suicide attacks in eight days leave 46 dead and hundreds wounded.

March 4, 1996 a fourth suicide bomber explodes himself in a Tel Aviv mall. 13 people are killed and 157 more wounded; the dead are all under 17 years old.

The peace process comes under increasing attack.

March 13,1996 “Summit of Peacemakers” convenes at Sharm el-Sheik. Israeli opposition to the peace process coalesced around Benjamin Netanyahu, the new leader of the Likud Party.

April 11-18, 1996 Violence erupts along Israel’s northern border. Hezbollah, the radical Shiite movement fired missiles into Israeli villages and towns. A week later Israeli artillery hits a United Nations compound near the village of Kana. More than 100 are killed.

May 29, 1996 Netanyahu becomes Israel’s youngest prime minister at the age of 47.

September 4, 1996 Arafat and Netanyahu meet at the Erez border crossing between Gaza and Israel.

September 24, 1996 In an area extremely sensitive to both Muslims and Jews Netanyahu opens an ancient tunnel that runs along the wall.

Palestinian radicals are quick to exploit the situation and organize demonstrations. The Israeli army fires upon the demonstrators, the Palestinian police use their guns against the Israeli army. The violence leaves 59 Palestinians and 16 Israelis dead.

October 1-2, 1996 Arafat and Netanyahu U.S. summoned to Washington by U.S. President Bill Clinton. Clinton also asks King Hussein of Jordan to join the talks. Netanyahu and Arafat agree to resume talks on further implementation of the Oslo accords.

January 15, 1997 After four months of difficult negotiations, Israel agrees to withdraw from Hebron. Palestinian Authority control all of the major cities in the West Bank and Gaza.

March 21, 1997 In Tel Aviv, a suicide bomber explodes himself in a packed café.

July 30, 1997 Two suicide attacks rip through Jerusalem’s main market within 10 minutes of each other. Sixteen are killed and hundreds are wounded.

September 4, 1997 Three more suicide bombers strike at the heart of Jerusalem. Five Israelis are killed and more than 200 wounded.

September 10-12, 1997 The new U.S. Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright, is dispatched to the area. It is her first trip to Israel.

October 15-23, 1998 Summit at Wye River Plantation in Maryland. The agreement allows for the construction of an international airport for the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip.

January 4, 1999 Knesset rebukes Netanyahu. Opposing Netanyahu is Labor Party head Ehud Barak.

May 17, 1999 Barak wins a landslide victory, becoming Israel’s 14^th prime minister.

July 11, 1999 Barak flies to the Erez crossing on the Israel-Gaza border for his first official meeting with the Palestinian leadership.

September 3-5, 1999 Sharm El-Sheikh Memorandum is signed by Arafat and Barak.

November 1999 Negotiations resume; Palestinians chafe at Israelis’ West Bank proposal.

May 24, 2000 Israel withdraws from southern Lebanon after 22 years.

July 11-25, 2000 The leaders head off to a hastily prepared summit at Camp David. Clinton proposes a compromise: Israel would return almost all of the West Bank and Gaza to the Palestinians; the two sides would swap small parcels of land important to each other; and they would agree to share control of Jerusalem. Barak uses Clinton’s proposal as a starting point and suggests several changes.

September 25, 2000 Arafat visits Barak’s private residence to keep peace in the area.

September 28, 2000 Palestinian violence erupted. The Al Aqsa intifada is born as a result of Sharon’s visit to the Temple Mount. By day’s end, seven protestors are dead and 160 enjured. The riots spread quickly through the West Bank and Gaza and engulf the Israeli Arab community as well. After a week of fighting, 50 Palestinians and 5 Israelis are dead.

October 12, 2000 Two Israeli reservists are lynched by a Palestinian mob. Israel blames the Palestinian Authority for the murders and within hours attack-helicopters destroy the police station, the site of the lynching. Israel also launches massive attacks on other targets in Gaza and the West Bank.

December 9, 2000 Barak announces resignation.

February 6, 2001 Sharon is elected prime minister of Israel.

Soon the political process stops and the old cycle of violence and counterviolence continue. Palestinian suicide bombings become an almost daily event. Israeli retaliation leaves hundreds of Palestinians dead.

March 29, 2002 Two days after suicide bomber explodes himself in a Netanya hotel on Passover and kills 30 people, Israel launches Operation Defensive Shield.

June 19-20, 2002 Two suicide bombings in Jerusalem; Israel begins retaking West Bank land.

August and September, 2002 Several attempts at Palestinian cease fire initiatives were foiled by refusal of extremist groups to participate and by Israeli acts such as the killing of Salah Shehadeh, head of the military wing of the Hamas in a missile attack on Gaza that cost the lives of 13 civilians.

The beginning of September Israeli security forces foiled several suicide attack attempts and detected a truck laden with 1300 pounds of explosives and gas tanks, that was to be used by Palestinians in a suicide attack.

The Israeli government proceeded with an attack on Gaza including entry into Gaza city and besieged Yasser Arafat and an estimated 200 others in the Muqata compound in Ramala.

Israel was about to blow up the Muqata, widespread demonstrations took place in the West Bank and Gaza, resulting in four deaths.

In October of 2002, the Labor party withdrew from the Israel unity government. PM Ariel Sharon initiated immediate elections, to be held January 28.

2003 Ariel Sharon is reelected PM.

Attacks and suicide bombings continue to happen almost every day. During the last 6 months more than 3 thousand people (both Israelis and Palestinians) were killed.

BENCHMARK 2

PART 6

And now we can underline the reasons, which led Israel to acquire weapons of mass destruction:

- Geopolitical position of Israel and its neighbors;

- Cultural and historical factors;

- Social and intellectual factors;

- Political ambitions and self-affirmation;

- Religious factor;

- Deterrent.

BENCHMARK 2

PART 7

In this part of our work we would like to show you some interviews of “people in the street”. We conducted the interview with people who could express their opinion in English. The only question was asked: What do you think about Israeli-Palestinian conflict?

The interviews were conducted by teacher Larisa Zlokazova and student Ivan Drokin of the Snezhinsk CIF team: