School №76

Lesnoy, Sverdlovskaya oblast

Project: “Space: Forum for Cooperation or Next Frontier for WMD Proliferation?”

Student: Kseniya Kurenikh, 10^th grade

Teacher: Olga Romanova

Introduction to Benchmark I

Our main purpuse was to get as much information about the issue as possible, find in different resourses and create our own definitions and other basic in the cotext of the four CIF domains (scientific/enviromental, economic, sicial/cultural, and political/geo-political). We also strived to develop practical skills in building of amateur rockets and get experience of extracurricular activities and public debates. As one of objectives we considered the development of critical thinking.

Benchmark I

WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE

The universe is composed of all visible and invisible matter and energy. It is approximated that the universe began 13.7 billion years ago, but like much of what we know about the vast expanse of space, we are not certain. While the universe is believed to be flat, it remains undecided whether or not it is infinite.

One of the most important recent discoveries is that ours is an expanded universe. Supported by the findings of Hubble, the observations of redshift helped us to make this discovery. Redshift refers to the process whereby all visible light bends towards the red end of the spectrum.

The origin of our universe is most popularly explained with the Big Bang theory. This idea states that everything around us was once condensed in a state of massive density and temperature. As space expands, so does our universe. Over the course of billions of years, the planets and galaxies we know of and the ones we don’t have been slowly moving outward.

While the expansion of our universe is widely accepted, the future of it is not. Respected scientists argue for both extremes. The universe may continue to expand forever, or it may eventually slow down enough to collapse. That’s why there are theories such like the Big Crunch, Big Rip, Big Freeze and Heat Death of the Universe theory. [1]

The UNIVERSE – all the existing material world, endless in time and space and indefinitely various in forms in which evolves the matter during its development. The universe investigated by Astronomy is a part of a material world which is accessible to research by the astronomical means appropriate to an achieved level of development of a science (sometimes this part of the universe is named the Metagalaxy).

WHAT IS SPACE

From THE PHILOSOPHICAL POINT OF VIEW surrounding space is not an empty void but a reservoir filled to repletion with the models of all things that ever were, that are, and that will be and with beings of countless races, unlike our own.

Occultism refuses to use the words above and below, higher and lower, in reference to invisible spheres, as being without meaning. When, in The Secret Doctrine, "other worlds" are mentioned, whether better or worse, more spiritual or still more material, though invisible the Occultist does not locate these spheres either outside or inside our Earth, as the theologians and poets do, for their location is nowhere in the space conceived by the profane. They are, as it were, blended with our world, interpenetrating it and interpenetrated by it. There are millions and millions of worlds and firmaments visible to us; there are still greater numbers beyond those visible to the telescopes, and many of the latter kind do not belong to our objective sphere of existence. Although as invisible as if they were millions of miles beyond our solar system, they are yet with us, near us, within our own world, as objective and material to their respective inhabitants as ours is to us.

Space is the One Unity throughout its infinitude, in its bottomless depths as on its illusive surface: a surface studded with countless phenomenal universes, systems, and mirage-like worlds. It is omnipresent Reality: impersonal, because it contains all and everything. Space is latent in every atom of the Universe, and is the Universe itself. In reality Space is what the ancients called the One indivisible and unknown (now unknowable) Deity. "Space is a substantial though (apparently) an absolutely unknowable living Entity." Occult philosophy, viewing the manifested and the unmanifested Kosmos as a UNITY, symbolized the ideal conception of the form by the "Golden Egg" with two poles in it. It is the positive pole that acts in the manifested world of matter, while the negative is lost in the unknowable absoluteness of SAT "Be-ness."

Time can be divided. Duration, in our philosophy at least, cannot. Time is divisible in Duration; or, the one is something within Time and Space, whereas the other is outside of both. Duration with us is the one eternity, not relative, but absolute. It is like Space, which is an abstraction too, and is equally without beginning or end. The distance between two points is called space, it may be enormous or it may be infinitesimal, yet it will always be space. But all such specifications are divisions in human conception. The ant has conceptions of time and space which are its own, not ours; conceptions which are entirely on another plane. We have, therefore, no right to deny a priori the existence of other planes only because we can form no idea of them, but which exist nevertheless planes higher and lower than our own by many degrees, as witness the ant.

The Universe is held in solution during Pralaya. During "The Night of Brahma," or Pralaya, all in the objective Universe has dissolved into its one primal and eternal cause, to reappear at the following Dawn as it does periodically. "Karana," eternal cause, is alone during the "Nights of Brahma." The previous objective Universe has dissolved thereinto and is, so to say, held in solution in space, to differentiate again and crystallize out anew at the following Manvantaric dawn, which is the commencement of a new "Day" or new activity of Brahma - the symbol of the Universe.

There is but one indivisible and absolute Omniscience and Intelligence in the Universe, and this thrills throughout every atom and infinitesimal point of the whole finite Kosmos which hath no bounds, and which people call SPACE, considered independently of anything contained in it. The fundamental Law in the Secret Doctrine system, the central point from which all emerged, around and toward which all gravitates, and upon which is hung the philosophy of all the rest, is the homogeneous divine SUBSTANCE-PRINCIPLE, the one radical cause. It is called "Substance-Principle" for it becomes "substance" on the plane of the manifested Universe, an illusion, while it remains a "principle" in the beginningless and endless abstract, visible and invisible SPACE.

Space is "the eternal Parentless" (Anupadaka). It is neither a "limitless void" nor a "conditioned fulness," but both; being, on the plane of absolute abstraction, the ever-incognizable Deity, which is void only to finite minds, and on that of mayavic perception, the Plenum, the absolute Container of all that is, whether manifested or unmanifested: it is, therefore, the ABSOLUTE ALL. [2]

From THE GEOPHYSICAL POINT OF VIEW space (from Greek “kosmos”) - a synonym of the astronomical definition of the universe; interplanetary, interstellar and intergalactic space. The vast gaps between the stars and planets are filled with huge amounts of thinly spread gas and dust. Even the emptiest parts of space contain at least a few hundred atoms or molecules per cubic metre.

Often two terms are used: near space which is researched with artificial satellites of the Earth, space vehicles and interplanetary stations, and outer space - the world of stars and galaxies. Outer space begins about 200 km above the Earth, where the shell of air around our planet disappears. With no air to scatter sunlight and produce a blue sky, space appears as a black blanket dotted with stars.

From POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC POINTS OF VIEW space - a place for commercial (television satellites), military (space weapons) and defensive (space-based defens) uses.

From MY HUMANITARIAN POINT OF VIEW outer space is a huge home for planets, stars, meteorites, asteroids comprised in galaxies, it is endless in time and room. Artificial objects are only provisional guests. People are citizens of that home and that’s why they must obey the laws of the Universe.

WHAT IS AN ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere - an air environment of the Earth. It includes a troposhere, a stratoshere, mesoshere, thermoshere, exosphere. The ionoshere begins above 100 kms. The layer of ozone which protects alive organisms on the Earth from short-wave radiation is located at height of 20-25 kms. Pressure and density of air within the atmosphere decrease with height.

COMMENTARY on the film (4 episodes) «Fight for space» coproduction BBC (Great Britain), the First channel (Russia), Geographic cannel (USA) and NDR (Germany).

The plot of the film is very interesting, it is really worth watching. We need to know history of cosmonautic because space exploration is very important for development of our civilization. That’s why I would like to tell you the beginning of the film, of course, in brief .

Fight for space was one of the most important and significant fights during the "cold" war. Two superpowers struggled for leadership in space and for laurels of pioneers in space: the USA and the USSR. The purpose of that military competition became an outer space exploration. Military programs of the USA and the USSR assumed creation of new, super-power rockets - carriers of nuclear charges. Only due to scientists the military purposes were accompanied with civil and scientific.

The USSR conducted tests of the first hydrogen bomb on the 12^th of August 1953 in Kazakhstan. And later a new space-vehicle launch was built there.

At the first Korolev (the main rocket designer of USSR, “father of Soviet space and missle programs”) wanted to launch a rocket with a booster vehicle, but the government rejected his suggestion. On the contrary the USA was extremly interested in launching spy space skips and social organizations in America were persuaded in scientific purposes of the space program. Eventually the Soviet Government understoond prospects and benefits of designing satellites and Korolev was immediately put in charge of Soviet satellite and launch-vehicle program. The first satellite got the name “Project D”. Tens Soviet institutes and the organizations took part in this project.

International tension intensified. New tests of more powerfull nuclear weapon were conducted. The American designer Von Broun created a new rocket named "Jupiter - C". It was able to carry a satellite. Its range was 5367 kms, its height - 1097 kms.

At that time Korolev tested his rocket but unsuccessfully. There was fuel escape, fortunally it didn’t explode.

The 2^nd launch was a failure again. Only one attempt was left. In the process of work Korolev replaced the old rocket, a new rocket weighed only 80 kg.

There were no complicated devices, it was equipped only with a radio transmitter. It became known as simply "Satellite".

The 3^rd start of R-7 was successful. The rocket flew more than 6 thousand kms, broken all records of range, and landed in Siberia. Such a rocket could even reach America.

The rocket was not a weapon of mass destruction, it was a carrier of human dream! "Satellite - 1" became the first man-made object started into a terrestrial orbit. Americans were disappointed, their national pride was restrained. All the world became the witness of triumph of the USSR!

On November, 3, 1957, "Satellite - 2" flew with a passenger. It was a dog Laika. It was alive. But then it died of intimate insufficiency. The world community condemned it as an act of cruelty.

Nevertheless the first start in an American history passed unsuccessfully. The rocket blew up. After the failure of the first start Broun was allowed to try to start satellite " Explorer ". At last on January, 31, 1958, the first American satellite reached a circumterraneous orbit.

The “cold” war was in full swing. “The New York Times” called this period “rase for survival”. NASA begins a new project “Mercury”. But the test of the first intercontinental rocket “Atlas” was unsuccessful. Von Broun decided to improve a military rocket “Redstone”, an analogue of a German rocket “V-2”. He made all necessary changes. Eventually it was a success. Then there were flights with animals taken aboard. Russians sent dogs and Americans – a chimpanzee.

A new much more absorbing idea captivated scientists both in the USA and the USSR – to send into outer space satellites with people on board. In April, 12, 1961 Y. Gagarin became the first man to fly into outer space. On May, 5, 1961, A. Shepard flew into space.

The staff of actors and actresses is mixed, they are from Russia, Great Britain and the USA. The film is colourful, its direction is splended. And what’s more: the series “Fight for space” makes us think, there are no ready answers, it represents different points of view, we have to analyse cause and effect in politics, try to understand mentality of people of that time, make our own conclusions.

A NEW OBJECT IN SPACE

An team of astronomers from the UK, USA, Australia, Italy and Canada using the CSIRO Parkes radio telescope in eastern Australia has found a new kind of cosmic object - small, compressed 'neutron stars' that show no activity most of the time but once in a while spit out a single burst of radio waves. The discovery is published in this week's issue of the journal Nature.

The new objects - dubbed Rotating Radio Transients or RRATs - are likely to be related to conventional radio pulsars (small stars that emit regular pulses of radio waves, up to hundreds of times a second). But the new objects probably far outnumber their old cousins, the scientists say.

Eleven RRATs have been found, first detected by the Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey and then observed again several times. Their isolated bursts last for between two and 30 milliseconds. In between, for times ranging from four minutes to three hours, they are silent.

"These things were very difficult to pin down," says CSIRO's Dr Dick Manchester, a member of the research team and a veteran pulsar hunter. "For each object we've been detecting radio emission for less than one second a day. And because these are single bursts, we've had to take great care to distinguish them from terrestrial radio interference."

By analysing the burst arrival times, the astronomers have found that 10 of the 11 sources have underlying periods of between 0.4 seconds and seven seconds. It is this that suggests that they are rotating neutron stars.

Because RRATs are 'silent' most of the time, the chance of being able to detect one is low. Many more must lurk unseen in our Galaxy, the astronomers argue - perhaps a few hundred thousand. The number of 'normal' radio pulsars in our Galaxy is estimated to be about 100 000.

Unlike some other kinds of stars that show periodic eruptions, the RRATs show no evidence for being in binary systems (that is, each orbiting another star).

A handful of 'normal' pulsars produce the occasional 'giant' pulse, along with their usual train of regular, smaller pulses. The RRATs appear to differ from these pulsars by having magnetic field strengths in the emission region about a hundred thousand times weaker. [3]

[4]

Space weapons are weapons that can attack and negate the capability of space systems in orbit (anti-satellite weapon); can attack targets on the earth (ex. orbital bombardment weapons such as "Rods from God"); can defeat missiles travelling through space. [5]

Types of Missiles

There are 6 main categories of guided missile:

· Surface to Surface (SSM) Tactical & Strategic;

· Surface to Air (SAM) Land & Sea launched;

· Air to Air (AAM);

· Air to Surface (ASM) Tactical & Strategic;

· Glide Bomb;

· Torpedo.

It can be argued that antisubmarine missiles form a new category although they are generally listed as air-to-surface missiles.

Surface to Surface (SSM) Tactical & Strategic

Australian Government Aircraft Factories Malkara

Multi-launch platform solid-fuel rocket wire-guided anti-tank missile.

British Aircraft Corporation Swingfire

Wire-guided multiple launch platform anti-tank missile.

Douglas Thor (Scale Model)

Large intermediate range ballistic nuclear missile with tapering body shape and pointed nose cone.

Fiesler Fi103 (V1)

A mixed wood and metal structure mid wing monoplane flying bomb with rear upper fuselage mounted Argus pulse jet and explosive warhead in the nose.

German Army V2 (Assembly 4)

Single stage liquid fuelled guided artillery bombardment missile.

Hai Ying 2G Silkworm

Liquid fuelled single stage radar guided anti-ship missile.

Lockheed Polaris

Two stage solid fuelled submarine launched ballistic missile.

Rheinmetall Borsig Rheinbote

Four stage solid fuelled unguided ballistic artillery rocket

Surface to Air (SAM) Land & Sea launched

British Aerospace Rapier

Solid fuel, optical or radar command guided surface to air missile.

British Aircraft Corporation Bloodhound

Missile installation comprising two missiles, type 86 radar & AP cage.

British Aircraft Corporation Thunderbird

Solid fuel rocket guided missile.

Henschel Hs177 Schmettering (Butterfly)

Liquid fuelled radio controlled surface-to-air missile.

Holzbrau-Kissing Enzian (Gentian Violet)

Liquid fuelled radio controlled surface-to-air missile with four solid fuel boosters.

Rheinmetall Borsig Feuerlilie (Fire Lilly)

Solid fuel development missile with swept back wings positioned at rear of cigar shaped fuselage.

Rheinmetall Borsig Rheintochter (Daughter of the Rhein) R1

Radio controlled two stage solid-fuelled surface-to-air missile.

Scheufeln Taifun (Typhoon)

Unguided single stage surface to air missile.

Air to Air (AAM)

British Aerospace SRAAM

Full scale model of short range visually aimed passive infra-red guided air-to-air missile.

Fairey Fireflash

Radar guided beam riding air-to-air missile with two solid fuel boosters.

Fairey Separation Test Vehicle (STV)

Inert test missile fitted with four solid fuel booster rockets for development work.

Hawker-Siddeley Firestreak

Infra-red guided, heat-seeking, air-to-air missile.

Hawker-Siddeley Red Top

Second generation infra red guided air to air missile

Henschel HS298

Air-launched radio controlled air-to-air missile with solid fuel rocket motor.

British Aerospace SRAAM

Full scale model of short range visually aimed passive infra-red guided air-to-air missile.

Fairey Fireflash

Radar guided beam riding air-to-air missile with two solid fuel boosters.

Fairey Separation Test Vehicle (STV)

Inert test missile fitted with four solid fuel booster rockets for development work.

Hawker-Siddeley Firestreak

Infra-red guided, heat-seeking, air-to-air missile.

Hawker-Siddeley Red Top

Second generation infra red guided air to air missile

Henschel HS298

Air-launched radio controlled air-to-air missile with solid fuel rocket motor.

Air to Surface (ASM) Tactical & Strategic

British Aerospace Dynamics Sea Skua

Helicopter-launched, sea-skimming semi-active radar homing solid-fuel anti-ship missile.

Douglas XGAM87 Skybolt

Two stage solid propellant air launched ballistic missile mock-up.

Engins Matra AS37 AR Martel

Solid fuel air launched anti radar missile.

Hawker-Siddeley Blue Steel

Air-launched single stage liquid fuelled nuclear stand-off missile.

Hawker-Siddeley Martel AS168

Air-to-surface missile, guided using a television camera mounted in the nose.

Henschel HS293

Radio controlled rocket powered guided bomb.

Nord AS11

Wire-guided helicopter-launched multi-purpose air-to-surface missile.

Glide Bombs

Blohm und Voss BV246 Hagelkorn (Hailstone)

Radio controlled glide bomb with high aspect ratio wings.

Ruhrstahl AG Fritz-X

Large radio-controlled glide bomb painted light blue-grey overall. Four large front fins and open box structure tail.

Torpedos

RAF Lightweight Torpedo Mk30

Air dropped passive homing torpedo.

USA Lightweight Torpedo Mk43

Lightweight air-dropped electric torpedo.

USA Lightweight Torpedo Mk44

Air dropped active homing torpedo. [6]

FUTURE SPACE WEAPONS

In fiction, space weapons take a variety of forms.

For example, in the Halo video game series, the United Nations Space Command uses ships armed with reactor powered magnetic coil guns called Magnetic Accelerator Cannon or MACs, which launch extremely large projectiles at high speed. The movie Serenity (film), the reimagined version of Battlestar Galactica, the TV show Stargate SG-1 and its spinoff Stargate Atlantis, the manga and anime of Gundam, and the anime of Cowboy Bebop also have this type of kinetic weapons.

Energy weapons are also commonly illustrated. Examples of energy weapons used in space warfare can be found in the Star Trek franchise, Star Wars movies, the movie Stargate, and the anime spinoffs of Gundam.

Another type of weapon is the Gravitational Cannon, which can be set to either push other ships away, or capture them and bring them into a docking bay. In The Chronicles of Mandoria, the Blood Stone creates a weapon known as "Sadow's Revenge", which fires a beam with an extremely strong gravitational force. It is fired into the core of any star, which creates a Super Nova, obliterating any planets in the system.

Perhaps the most famous space weapon is the Death Star, a moon-sized space station in the Star Wars movies with the power to destroy a planet.

The antimatter weapon is the possible future space weapon which space ship can battle with at several distances, for instance, up to several thousand kilometers. The antimatter weapon is the most powerful and profitable from all possible types of nuclear weapon, it's due to the process of annihilation of substances and anti-substances, whereby 100% mass turns into energy. But in nuclear and thermonuclear explosion in energy emanation and percussion waves about 20-40% turns into mass.

The antimatter weapon is exclusively space weapon because its coercions on target in atmospheric planets are much weaken by air absorber action. It's only in cosmos, where there is no air, the antimatter weapon can be effective.

There exist two factors for fighting antimatter stream released from the space ship: the divergence of the stream and its composition. In order to emit particle of antimatter absolutely parallel to lines is impossible with increased in distance, the density in the stream will fall, hence its striking capability reduces. The flow of battle antimatter could be of any composition, though not all particles are suitable for space antimatter weapon. Positron and antiproton stream could easily deflect the electrical protection of energy in space ship and with antineutron, it's impossible. Antineutron stream has a high penetrative capability, protection against it is possible only with many layers of armor which will increase the weight of the space ship, and reduces its maneuverability; apart from this, antineutrons stream can penetrate any armor inside the space ship and as well utterly weaken its condition, destroy microelectronic in particular microprocessors. It will deprive the hostile space ship from computer intellect. In such a defeat, the space ship can be easily destroyed or held in captivity. Such is the logic in using space weapon N 2 in the book "I" - the antimatter weapon - which use in star wars in the book "I".[7]

KINDS OF OBJECTS THAT MIGHT BE PUT INTO SPACE IN FUTURE

Space weapons	Tourist objects	Medical services	Industrial enterprises	Educational centers
Defense platforms	Casinos	Hospitals	Factories and plants	Space museums
Military airports	Hotels	Reanimation centers	Farms	Sci Trek
Space-vehicle launching sites	Camping sites	Rehabilitation centers	Transport agencies	Space schools, colleges
Laser devices	Theatres	Health resorts	Welding facilities	Libraries
Radar installations	Observatories	Clinics	Foundries	Teacher centers
Space bombs	Tourist agencies	Veterinary surgery	Weather forecast stations	Memorials
Headquaters of different countries	Labyrinths		Greenhouses	Scientific research institutes
Barracks of military men	Space history routs		Plantations
	Disneyland		Arboretumta
	Conservatories
	Gymnasiums

MILITARIZATION AND WEAPONIZATION OF SPACE

The militarisation of space is the placement and development of weaponry in outer space by the militaries of the world. Thus, the militarisation of space took place way back in the 1960s and is now evolving into the weaponisation of space with actual placement of weapons by the US for decisive military advantage. Militarisation of space seems to be the next step in this endless struggle to gain higher ground than the enemy. The idea of placing weapons in space can be found first in 20th century science fiction stories, but it was not until World War II and the Cold War that such concepts became reality.

The rapid development of new technologies and thir use for military purposes has highlighted the need to solve the problem posed by technological progress toward the weaponization of outer space. If no action is taken, such developments will create a new channel for thw arms race, which will have farreaching negative consequences. The most dangerous outcome in the near future will be development and deployment of a space-based echelon of ballistic missile defenses and antisatellite (ASAT) weapons.

At a fundamental level, virtually all issues of space strategy and military space cooperation are shaped by the spectrum of views on the untility of weaponizing space. Major questions include: whether space will be weaponized, how and when that might happen, which states and other actors might be most interested in leading or oppositing weaponization, and how any of these space weaponization issues might best be managed. At the political level, there is, of course, a broad spectrum of opinion on these issues but most of the major tenets in mainstream views on weaponizing space can usefully be grouped into four major camps: space hawks, inevitable weaponizers, militarization realists, and space doves.

Space hawks believe that space already is or holds the potential to become the dominant source of military power. They hope that the USA should move quickly directly to develop and deploy space weapons in order to control and project power from this dominant theater of combat operations. In addition, space hawks often point to space-based ballistic missile defense (BMD) as a potentially decisive weapon capable of fundamentally reordering the strategic balance. They tend to oppose virtually all space-related arms control and are lukewarm at best on military space cooperation because of the potential of these activities to slow or derail rapid and direct space weaponization.

Inevitable weaponizers believe that space, like all other environments man has encountered, will eventually be weaponized. They differ from space hawks in two important ways: they are not convinced that space weponization would be beneficial for the USA or global security, and they are unsure that space will prove to be the decisive theater for combat operations. Inevitable weaponizers take a nuanced view of space arms control and cooperation. They generally support confidence- and security-building measures (CSBMs) and other cooperative mechanisms designed to slow military competition and channel it in predictable ways. But they are less supportive of broad efforts to ban space weapons because they see them as futile or even dangerous due to their potential to lull the USA into complacency or otherwise cause it to be outmaneuvered by states that successfully circumvent space weaponization accords.

Militarization realists oppose space weaponization because they believe U.S. security interests are best served by the status quo in space. They believe that the USA has little to gain but much to lose by weaponizing space because it is both the leading user of space and, enabled by this space use, the dominant terrestrial military power. Militarization realists also think that if the USA takes the lead in weaponizing space, it would become easier for other states to follow due to lower political and technological barriers. For these reasons, militarization realists believe that “fighting into space looks feasible and we should plan for the eventuality. Fighting in space shows little promise, while fighting from space looks impractical for the foreseeable future, with or without treaties”. Members of this camp support space-related arms control and cooperation that precludes other states from weaponizing or even militarizing space. Most of them believe that this support must be balanced against the increased attention that formalized arms control efforts could draw to America’s already formidable space-enable force enhancement capabilities and the political, military and arms control fallout this incresed scrutiny might cause. Informal cooperation might be one of the best ways to circumvent this potential difficulty.

Space doves all oppose space weaponization of a variety of reasons, including moral, arms control, conflict resolution, stability, and ideology arguments. Most of them also oppose any militarization of space beyond the limited missions they see as stabilizing – national technical means (NTM) of arms control verification, early warning, and hotline communications – because they see any military missions beyond these as the “slippery slope” to space weaponization. Space doves support space arms control and cooperation more strongly that any other camp. Since they do not believe the US (or other states) would reap strategic benefits from weaponizing space, they are not overly concerned about the numerous arms control challenges identified by the other camps. [8]

Our point of view is close to opinion of space doves. We also believe that arms space control above expansion of the weapon and above various military missions is necessary. Space is not a place for wars because space wars (especial with use of the nuclear weapon) inevitably will result in irreparable consequences, up to (down to) destruction of all the life on the Earth and on other planets (if it is there).

“SPACE-BASED” DEFENCE

Recent events and conflicts around the world have changed many perceptions and complacencies, both political and personal, about the nature of threats and the actions necessary to counter them. There is a recognition that attack may potentially come from any quarter and use unexpected methods to achieve its ends. Thus the response has been a deepening of the security mechanism, with an emphasis on setting up systems and networks that can make best use of all available resources. Within this networking approach, space plays a key role: satellites, used for collecting, analysing and disseminating information (image data or telecommunications transmissions), offer unique advantages – global reach, rapid delivery, revisit capability and permanent operation – while exo-atmospheric interceptions (with ground- or sea-based interceptors) benefit from long-range action, multiple interception opportunities and high efficiency.

[9]

Despite wishful thinking to the contrary, man is and promises to remain an

aggressive, combative creature. We fear, we hate, we fight one another. Until we remove causes of fear and hatred and correct the conditions which prompt us to arm ourselves, we have no choice but to prepare to defend ourselves against attack... against aggression in space and from space. We cannot surrender the 'high ground' without contest. [10]

The Soviet Union stunned the world with the first successful satellite launch of Sputnik in October 1957. The United States quickly answered the Soviet challenge with the launch of Explorer 1 in January 1958. Then, in December 1958 President Eisenhower provided a glimpse of America's future in space when he delivered his famous Christmas goodwill message to the world by satellite.

Public understanding of space programs, whether that of Americans, Soviets, Asians or Europeans, is confined to events publicized in the media. Therefore, it is not surprising that most of the world has remained relatively unaware of the extensive efforts by many nations, especially those of the United States and the Soviet Union, to utilize space to ensure national security.

National security is much more than a purely military concept. It also has equally important economic and political dimensions. It includes verification of disarmament, domestic priorities and, increasingly, the challenges of terrorism and weapons proliferation.

Moveover, national security can be influenced by events outside our treaty area, as was demonstrated during the Persian Gu1f War.

Space-based programs

Space-Based Interceptor (SBI)

Groups of interceptors were to be housed in orbital modules. Successful hover testing was completed in 1988 and demonstrated successful integration of the sensor and propulsion systems in the prototype SBI. It also demonstrated the ability of the seeker to shift its aim-point from a rocket's hot plume to its cool body, a first for infrared ABM seekers. Final hover testing occurred in 1992 using miniaturized components similar to what would have actually been used in an operational interceptor. These prototypes eventually evolved into the Brilliant Pebbles program.

Brilliant Pebbles concept artwork

Brilliant Pebbles was a non-nuclear system of satellite-based, watermelon-sized, mini-missiles designed to use a high-velocity kinetic warhead. It was designed to operate in conjunction with the Brilliant Eyes sensor system and would have detected and destroyed missiles without any external guidance. The project was conceived in November 1986.

John H. Nuckolls, director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1988 to 1994, described the system as “The crowning achievement of the Strategic Defense Initiative”. The technologies developed for SDI were used in numerous later projects. For example, the sensors and cameras that were developed for Brilliant Pebbles became components of the Clementine mission and SDI technologies may also have a role in future missile defense efforts.

Though regarded as one of the most capable SDI systems, the Brilliant Pebbles program was canceled in 1994 by the BMDO. However, it is being reevaluated for possible future use by the MDA.

Strategic Defense Initiative Timeline

[11]

SPACE SECURITY

Like traditional activities in the domains of land, sea and air, activities in the domain of outer space can affect the peace and security of the international community on Earth. Outer space remains the last environment in which humanity has not deployed weapons.

Our goal is secure and sustainable access to and use of space, and freedom from space-based threats.

We are not likely to achieve this goal in one giant leap. Our aim is therefore to make progress through small, practical and achievable steps which create the preconditions for space actors to consider space weapons to be of marginal utility. [12]

It is difficult to say exactly what space security is. Dr. Clay Moltz, for example, thinks that space security is “the ability to place assets outside the Earth’s atmosphere with the confidence that they will not be disturbed”. I agree with this definition. I also suppose that space security is a confidence in the happy future without wepons especially in space.

Space security and space-based defence are alike. But we can not imagine any defence without weapons. And it is a great problem for modern sociaty: should we use weapons for our security and defence or refuse weapon systems and feel the vulnerability? I believe that the decision of this problem is international treaties in the sphere of nonproliferation in space.

“GENOME”

Literature is a greatest human property. Books provide new food for thoughts. As many people I indulge in reading scince fiction and fantasy. I think good scince fiction and fantasy develop imagination, logical thinking. Lately I have read the book “Genome” by S. Lukyanenko. My choice was motivated by Benchmark I. Lukyanenko is an author of many in the genre of fantasy. His books are really popular with people of different ages. They are “Night Watch”, “Day Watch”, “Knights of 40 islands”, “Spectrum”, trilogy “Mase of reflections”, “Lord from the planet Earth”, “Line of dreams”, “Atomic dream” and many others. What is so special about “Genome”?

The phenomenal success of that book has been one of the most talked about and unexpected success stories in the book world of Russia.

Firstly, you can’t remain indifferent. The story takes place in space in the 23^rd centuy. Societies in the book are quite differenr from ours: science and technology has affected life and changed it greatly. Scientific and technological breakthroughs have brought not only benefits. Mankind has to share the Universe with other creatures (similar to animals Tsigy, awkward Fanguan, brisk Browny, martial Halflings, never laughing Taii). The habital of people is inlarged (the Earth is a historical motherland of people, but many of them have never been there – they were born on one of the great namber of planets of People’s Empire). People got accustomed to space tourism, and development of gene engeneering allowed the human being to be born with a definite profession, that means people had all the proper skills and abilities for this or that profession activity. For example, a pilot needs quick reaction, great responsibility, selflessness, preparedness to protect passengers and cargo, but he mustn’t have an ability to love. Love in his profession isn’t necessary or obligatory at all, because love to a girl or a boy may interfere with love to his spaceship. That’s why pilots can’t love, their gene responsible for this felling is frozen. Fate or profession (it is just the same) of a future child is determined by his parents before his birth. Such genetic modified people are doomed to happiness if they devote themselves to any activity which has been chosen for them.

The main character Alexander Romanov is predestined to be a pilot. After a serious accident he had to stay in hospital for half a year and recover his health. After recovering he occupied a position of a capitan on a spaceship of the company that went in for tourism for strangers (for creatures of other races). On board there was a representative of the ruling clan Tsigy – princess Zey So. During the journey she was assassinated. The situation could turm into a bloody one between two races: people and Tsigy. The killer was a member of the crew – a 19 years old power engeneering specialist. Actually he was a secret agen of the ruling clique of the Empire. Alex and his crew rescued the world and Alex was blessed with the ability to love.

This novel is interesting for us from technical and scientific points of view. Space is investigated up and down, space tourism is flourishing. Every planet has its own space-vehicle launching site.

Colonization of space began from the first hyperchannel station on the Moon in the middle of the 21^st century. All the forces are concentrated in space. Of course new means of movements and new kinds of weapons were created. It is possible to travel with the help of a hyperchannel, a special type of room made with the spaceship engine. You can move there with very high speed. Space is a zone of active trade. Satellites of tracking are flying from one planet to another. But in space there were not only tourists and guards, there also space pirates. Space is transformed into a battle field. Laser cannons, rockets, mines are used in space. And what’s more, quart bombs and fields of annigilation appeared in space, they possess terrible destructive power and are able to destroy the whole planet.

Nowadays it is only the author’s imagination, but who knows what the human mind can achieve, what gadgets and divices we will have to deal with in the future. The future described by Lukyanenko frightens me. People are overwheimed with striving for technical progress, and as a result they kill, cripple or become themselves a death weapon in hand of cruel creatures.

Nevertheless I believe that space is a romantic place, a beautiful dream which reminds mankind that the Universe is boundless, eternal. And so is our soul.

THE SECRET OF SPACE

Each child not reflecting will answer a question «what is space»: «Space is higher than the sky. This is a place where there are stars, planets, comets and meteorites». As a matter of fact, he is right. But even if the child is capable to understand in general sense of the phenomenon why do the best minds of mankind beat their brains about this riddle for years, centuries, milleniums, and all is in vain? Of course, the results of scientific researches are great: we know laws of movement planets, laws of alternation of day and night, we can overcome terrestrial gravitation, people were on the Moon etc.

But the more we learn the more mysterious and inexplicable space appears. Though sometimes it seems to the man, that he has won and subdued the obstinate Universe, actually we, people, are very small on scale of boundless space and helpless in front of its force. What mechanism pushes an insignificant, small, defenceless creature to investigate the great, huge and already only therefore incomprehensible for his weak and limited mind? The answer is rather simple. It is a secret, a riddle. The man is urged on with notorious curiosity.

“Because of curiosity people make strange and dangerous things. Pandora opened the casket trusted to her, the wife of the dark Blue Beard entered the forbidden room, scientists split the atom. Where you only have a look – there are continuous troubles because of this curiosity. And if earlier danger threatened the curious, in the last one hundred years –sometimes it is a danger to all mankind. One curious scientist becomes more dangerous than the whole army”, - says S. Lukyanenko, one of contemporary Russian scientific visionaries, in one of his books.

People lose interest to a well when water in it dries up, children break the toys when they have bothered them, scientists cease investigating when it seems to them that everything has been discovered. There is a set of examples on how lack of interest in any subject or phenomenon, results in global and often negative changes towards this subject.

Nowadays space is also interesting from pecuniary and consumer points of view. We can find new energy resources, new materials and products, use new technologies. For example, satellite thechnology can help to locate resources for extraction from the Earth. New technologies can prevent different accidents, natural disasters (earthquakes, flooding, severe thunder storms, global warming etc.). So scientific and technological breakthroughs can bring great benefits.

Of course, space is a new field for entertainment. Many illnesses can be treated or cured in space. Space is an area for military competition. The winner can get supriority in all spheres. Besides, our Earth is overpopulated. We need new territories where we can live. These are also serious reasons to be interested in space.

I suppose I am quite optimistic about the future. I do not believe in pessimistic predictions.

MEETING THE KNOWLEDGEABLE SPEAKER

We invited a knowledgeable speaker to come to our school. She deals with space and space issues. She is a military representative and, of course, she can help us gain knowledge of space. She is a world known test-pilot, a hero of Russia, a famous explorer of UFOs.

Who is she? Can you guess?

It is a Marina Popovich! Her invitation was a surprise for students of our school. We all really enjoyed her speech and learned new facts and data.

A SHORT OVERVIEW OF CONCEPTS OF SPACE IN ANCIENT TIMES

In order to develop an understanding of the history of people’s knowledge of space were read some books in Russian and articles from the magazine “Physics at school”.

From time immemorial people were interested in what it was happening above their heads, in the sky. All this knowledge were necessary for people in Ancient Egypt, both in Babylon and in India, and in China - everywhere where people lived, sowed, hunted, bred cattle, went traveling through deserts and seas. It was necessary for them to be guided in time and space. At that time there were no maps and the compass was known only in Ancient China.

People noticed that the beginning of agricultural work coincided with the appearance of the certain stars in the sky. Also with the help of astronomical supervision people could keep account of time. The first calendars appeared a lot of centuries ago.

The person who just has realized the existence tried to explain the device of the world and find his place in it. A lot of scientists of scientists worked in order to develop the conception of the Universe.

One of the first oustanding representatives of ancient science was Aristotle. He was known as the greatest authority in any field of science. He was one of the first to develop the model of the Universe. In the centre of the Universe there was the motionless spherical Earth. Aristotel proved two facts: first, during lunar eclipses the Earth rejects on a surface of our satellite a round shadow, and second, during distant travel the stars located low above the horizon, disappear, latent because of the camber of the Earth, but on the other hand, new stars before invisible appear. It would be impossible if the Earth was flat: the traveller would see the same stars.

Aristotle’s doctrine appeared very useful to the European science of the Middle Ages. However there were some erroneous conclusions which were declared by his followers to be indisputable true. This fact did much harm: the purpose of all scientists became new interpretation of Aristotle’s doctrine instead of search of new laws.

During many centuries the "Great Construction" by Claudio Ptolemy kept its value. He lived in Alexandria, the centre of the Greek culture. In his work he suggested a new system of the world. He did not recognize any crystal spheres. In his system the Sun and planets rotated around of the Earth in empty space. By complicated geometrical constructions Ptolemy managed to create such system of the world that that enabled to predict solar and lunar eclipses, to find heavenly bodies in those points of the sky which were specified by the theory.

This system was accepted and supported by the Christian church. This system existed down to Kopernic’s discovery.

Is it easy to find definitions of the sky, the heavenly arch? We, people of the 21 century, know a nature of stars. People of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece thought that the heavenly dome was a firm arch closing the Earth from the firmament, and it consisted of seven crystal spheres on which planets rotated: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Later in Middle Ages, scientists argued of what the heavenly arch was made: of glass, crystal or sapphire?

The correct explanation was given by Leonardo da Vinch in the 15^th century. In his book «About Painting» he wrote that the blue of the sky was the result of thickness of lifhted air particles which is located between the Earth and blackness above it. Ancient astronomers could define the hight of the Sun above the horizon.

From time immemorial people were interested in the cause of alternation of day and night. Today every pupil of the 2^nd grade can explain it: «It is the consequence of day and night rotation of the Earth round the axis of the equator».

The most well-known experience to confirm this fact was carried out by a French physicist Jean Fuko in 1851.His installation was a heavy pendulum on a long suspension bracket. The plane of swing of the pendulum was not constant; it turned relative to the Earth at some angle.

To notice the movement of the Earth being on its surface is impossible. Therefore people thought for a long time that the Earth was as flat as a pancake and kept on 3 whales (or elephants).

Besides that (we mean Earth’s revolution round the Sun and it is rotation round the axis) our planet is set in motion in the Milky Way. Ancient people thought it was milk spilled by the goddess Hera. According to other myths it was a road from the mountain Olympus (on which gods lived) to the Earth. And in the Chinese legends the Milky Way was “the heavenly river”. But even in an antiquity people already guessed that the Milky Way is a set of stars indiscernible with the naked eye. The invention of a telescope helped to find out the nature of the Milky Way. Galilee discovered that the Milky Way is a set of stars located in circles. With a help of a telescope one can see a huge number of stars which are bright enough and quite distinct, but the quantity of weaker stars can be calculated. Galillee was sure of this fact centuries ago.

Ancient people needed to measure time. So the first calendars appeared many thousand years ago. There were lunar, solar, lunar-solar calendars. Lunar-solar calendars were known among peoples of China and India. Today all nations of the world use the solar calendars inherited from Ancient Romens which calendar was accepted in 700 BC.

To understand complex movement of planets, determine changes of position of stars, to make the first star catalogues is impossible without tools. Ancient astronomers applied a gnomen to define the height of the Sun above horizon. The shadow from solar gnomen is shortened when the Sun rises and it is extended when the Sun goes down. And the same time it turns around. With the help of this elementary device it was possible to mark days of solstices and fix duration of a year. The higher was the gnomen, the longer was its shadow and measurements were more precise.

CHRONOLOGY OF SPACE EXPLORATION

1912 - 1949

Balloon flight - Europe - (1912)

Discovered cosmic rays.

NRL V-2 rocket - USA - (1946)

First observation of the Sun's UV spectrum.

NRL V-2 rocket - USA - (1949)

First observation of solar x rays.

1957 - 1960

Sputnik-1 - USSR - (1957)

First artificial satellite.

Explorer III - USA - (1958)

Discovered Earth's radiation belt.

Pioneer 0 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (August 17, 1958)

First stage exploded.

Pioneer 1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (October 11, 1958)

Failed to reach escape velocity.

Pioneer 3 - USA Lunar Flyby - (December 6, 1958)

Failed to reach escape velocity.

Luna 1 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 361 kg - (January 2, 1959)

Luna 1 was the first lunar flyby. It discovered the solar wind and is now in a solar orbit.

Pioneer 4 - USA Distant Lunar Flyby - 5.9 kg - (March 3, 1959)

Space probe is now in a solar orbit.

Luna 2 - USSR Lunar Hard Lander - 387 kg - (September 12, 1959)

Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to impact the surface of the moon on September 14, 1959.

Luna 3 - USSR Lunar Far Side Flyby - 278.5 kg - (October 4, 1959)

Encountered the Moon on October 7, 1959 and returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side. Space probe is now in a decayed earth-moon orbit.

Pioneer 5 - USA Solar Monitor - (March 11, 1960)

Space probe is now in a solar orbit.

Mars 1960A - USSR Mars Probe - (October 10, 1960)

Failed to reach Earth orbit.

Mars 1960B - USSR Mars Probe - (October 14, 1960)

Failed to reach Earth orbit.

1961 - 1965

Venera 1 - USSR Venus Flyby - 643.5 kg - (February 12, 1961)

Now in a solar orbit.

Aerobee Rocket - USA - (1962)

Observed the first x-ray star.

Ranger 3 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 327 kg - (January 26, 1962)

Lunar probe missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.

Ranger 4 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 328 kg - (April 23, 1962)

First US lunar impact of the Moon.

Mariner 2 - USA Venus Flyby - 201 kg - (August 27, 1962 - January 3, 1963)

On December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 arrived at Venus at a distance of 34,800 kilometers and scanned its surface with infrared and microwave radiometers, capturing data that showed Venus's surface to be about 425°C (800°F). Three weeks after the Venus flyby Mariner 2 went off the air on January 3, 1963. It is now in a solar orbit.

Ranger 5 - USA Lunar Flyby - 340 kg - (October 18, 1962)

Ranger 5 was to be a lander but became a flyby because of a spacecraft failure. It is now in a solar orbit.

Mars 1962A - USSR Mars Flyby - (October 24, 1962)

Spacecraft failed to leave Earth orbit after the final rocket stage exploded.

Mars 1 - USSR Mars Flyby - 893 kg - (November 1, 1962)

Communications failed en route.

Mars 1962B - USSR Mars Lander - (November 4, 1962)

Failed to leave Earth orbit.

Luna 4 - USSR Lunar Probe - 1,422 kg - (April 2, 1963)

Lunar 4 was intended to be a lunar lander but missed the Moon. It is now in an Earth Moon orbit.

Ranger 6 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 361.8 kg - (January 30, 1964)

Cameras failed; lunar probe impacted the surface of the Moon.

Zond 1 - USSR Venus Flyby - 890 kg - (April 2, 1964)

Communication lost en route; now in a solar orbit.

Ranger 7 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 362 kg - (July 28, 1964)

Arrived on July 31, 1964, sent pictures back at a close range, and impacted the Moon.

Mariner 3 - USA Mars Flyby - 260 kg - (November 5, 1964)

Mars flyby attempt. Solar panels did not open, preventing flyby. Mariner 3 is now in a solar orbit.

Mariner 4 - USA Mars Flyby - 260 kg - (November 28, 1964 - December 20, 1967)

Mariner 4 arrived at Mars on July 14, 1965 and passed within 9,920 kilometers of the planet's surface. It returned 22 close-up photos showing a cratered surface. The thin atmosphere was confirmed to be composed of carbon dioxide in the range of 5-10 mbar. A small intrinsic magnetic field was detected. Mariner 4 is now in a solar orbit.

Zond 2 - USSR Mars Flyby - (November 30, 1964)

Contact was lost en route.

Ranger 8 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 366 kg - (February 17, 1965)

Ranger 8 arrived at the moon on February 20, 1965. It sent back high-resolution pictures until it impacted in Mare Tranquillitatis.

Ranger 9 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 366 kg - (March 21, 1965)

Lunar probe sent pictures of its impact on the moon.

Luna 5 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,474 kg - (May 9, 1965)

The lunar soft-lander failed and impacted the moon.

Luna 6 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,440 kg - (June 8, 1965)

Missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.

Zond 3 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 959 kg - (July 18, 1965)

Returned pictures of the lunar far side. It is now in a solar orbit.

Luna 7 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,504 kg - (October 4, 1965)

Luna 7 failed and impacted the moon.

1966 - 1970

Venera 2 - USSR Venus Flyby - 962 kg - (November 12, 1965 - 1966)

Communications failed just before arrival. Now in solar orbit.

Venera 3 - USSR Venus Atmospheric Probe - 958 kg - (November 16, 1965 - 1966)

Communications failed just before atmosphere entry. Crashed on Venus.

Luna 8 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,550 kg - (December 3, 1965)

Luna 8 failed and impacted the moon.

Pioneer 6 - USA Solar Probe - 63.4 kg - (December 16, 1965 - Present)

The Probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.

Luna 9 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,580 kg - (January 31, 1966)

Luna 9 landed on the lunar surface and retuned the first photographs from the surface.

Luna 10 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,597 kg - (March 31, 1966)

Luna 10 is currently in a lunar orbit.

Surveyor 1 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 269 kg - (April 30, 1966 to 1967)

Surveyor 1 was the first American soft landing on the lunar surface.

Lunar Orbiter 1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 386 kg - (August 10, 1966)

Lunar Orbiter 1 orbited the moon, photographed the far side, and then impacted on command.

Pioneer 7 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (August 17, 1966 - ?)

Solar-orbiting probe was recently turned off.

Luna 11 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,638 kg - (August 24, 1966)

Luna 11 is currently in a lunar orbit.

Surveyor 2 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 292 kg - (September 20, 1966)

Surveyor 2 failed and impacted the moon.

Luna 12 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,620 - (October 22, 1966-1967)

Luna 12 is in a lunar orbit.

Lunar Orbiter 2 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (November 6, 1966)

Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo landing sites, then impacted on command.

Luna 13 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,700 kg - (December 21, 1966)

Landed on the lunar surface.

Lunar Orbiter 3 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 385 kg - (February 5, 1967)

Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo 12 landing sites, then impacted on command.

Surveyor 3 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (April 17, 1967)

Landed on the lunar surface.

Lunar Orbiter 4 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (May 4, 1967)

Orbited the moon at a polar inclination and impacted on command.

Venera 4 - USSR Venus Atmospheric Probe - 1,104 kg - (June 12, 1967)

Venera 4 arrived at Venus on October 18, 1967. This was the first probe to be placed directly into the atmosphere and to return atmospheric data. It showed that the atmosphere was 90-95% carbon dioxide. It detected no nitrogen. The surface temperature reading was 500°C and pressure reading was 75 bar. It was crushed by the pressure on Venus before it reached the surface.

Mariner 5 - USA Venus Flyby - 244 kg - (June 14 to November, 1967)

Mariner 5 arrived at Venus on October 19, 1967, one day after Venera 4. It passed within 3,900 kilometers of the planet's surface. It studied the Venusian magnetic field and found that its atmosphere was composed of 85-99% carbon dioxide. It is now in a solar orbit.

Surveyor 4 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (July 14, 1967)

Lander failed and impacted the moon.

Explorer 35 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 104 kg - (July 19, 1967 - 1972)

Orbiter acquired field and particle data.

Lunar Orbiter 5 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 389 kg (August 1, 1967)

Orbited the moon at a polar inclination, took high resolution pictures of many important sites, and impacted on command.

Surveyor 5 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 279 kg - (September 8, 1967)

Landed on the lunar surface.

Surveyor 6 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 280 kg - (November 7, 1967)

Landed on and took off from the lunar surface.

Pioneer 8 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (December 13, 1967 - Present)

Solar probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.

Surveyor 7 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 1,036 kg - (January 7, 1968)

Landed on the lunar surface.

Luna 14 - USSR Lunar Probe - 1,700 kg - (April 7, 1968)

Luna 14 is in a lunar-solar orbit.

Zond 5 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,375 kg - (September 14, 1968)

Lunar fly-around and earth return.

Pioneer 9 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (November 8, 1968 - March 3, 1987)

Still in solar orbit. Died on March 3, 1987.

Zond 6 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,375 - (November 10, 1968)

Lunar fly-around and earth return.

Apollo 8 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 28,883 kg - (December 21-27, 1968)

Crew: Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., William Anders.

The crew undertook the first manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. The astronauts made 10 orbits of the moon on Christmas Eve.

Venera 5 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 5, 1969)

Venera 5 arrived at Venus on May 16, 1969. Along with Venera 6, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 26 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.

Venera 6 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 10, 1969)

Venera 6 arrived at Venus on May 17, 1969. Along with Venera 5, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 11 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.

Mariner 6 - USA Mars Flyby - 412 kg - (February 24, 1969)

Mariner 6 arrived at Mars on February 24, 1969, and passed within 3,437 kilometers of the planet's equatorial region. Mariner 6 and 7 took measurements of the surface and atmospheric temperature, surface molecular composition, and pressure of the atmosphere. In addition, over 200 pictures were taken. Mariner 6 is now in a solar orbit.

Mariner 7 - USA Mars Flyby - 412 kg - (March 27, 1969)

Mariner 7 arrived at Mars on August 5, 1969, and passed within 3,551 kilometers of the planet's south pole region. Mariner 6 and 7 took measurements of the surface and atmospheric temperature, surface molecular composition, and pressure of the atmosphere. In addition, over 200 pictures were taken. Mariner 7 is now in a solar orbit.

Apollo 10 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 42,530 kg - (May 18-26, 1969)

Crew: Thomas Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan, John W. Young.

Manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. Stafford and Cernan tested the Lunar Module, separating it from the Command and Service Module and descended to within 50,000 feet of the lunar surface. The astronauts acquired a large number of excellent 70-mm photographs.

Luna 15 - USSR Lunar Lander - 2,718 kg - (July 13, 1969)

Unsuccessful sample return attempt. Crashed during landing.

Apollo 11 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,811 kg - (July 16-24, 1969)

Crew: Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Michael Collins.

Apollo 11 was the first manned lunar landing, which took place on July 20, 1969. The landing site was Mare Tranquillitatis at latitude 0°67' N and longitude 23°49' E. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 21.7 kilograms of soil and rock samples and deployed experiments.

Zond 7 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,979 kg - (August 8, 1969)

Lunar fly-around and Earth return.

Apollo 12 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,848 kg - (November 14-24, 1969)

Crew: Charles Conrad Jr., Alan L. Bean, Richard F. Gordon, Jr.

Apollo 12 was a manned lunar landing which took place on November 19, 1969. The landing site was Oceanus Procellarum at latitude 3°12' S and longitude 23°23' W. This was the landing site for Surveyor 3. Conrad and Bean retrieved portions of Surveyor 3, including the camera. Samples amounting to 34.4 kilograms were returned from the moon. Astronauts also deployed the Apollo lunar surface experiment package (ALSEP), an automated research station which was also deployed by all subsequent lunar crews.

Apollo 13 - USA Lunar Flyby - 43,924 kg - (April 11-17, 1970)

Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr., Fred W. Haise, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr.

The Apollo 13 mission became one of survival for the astronauts on board. During the translunar coast an explosion destroyed both power and propulsion systems of the Command Service Module. The Lunar Module was used as a lifeboat for the astronauts.

Venera 7 - USSR Venus Lander - 1180 kg - (August 17, 1970)

Venera 7 arrived at Venus on December 15, 1970 and was the first successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet. It used an external cooling device which allowed it to send back 23 minutes of data. The surface temperature was 475°C, and surface pressure was 90 bar.

Luna 16 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (September 12, 1970)

Landed on September 20, 1970 at Mare Fecunditaits located at latitude 0°41' S and longitude 56°18' E. 100 grams of lunar samples were returned to the Earth.

Zond 8 - USSR Lunar Flyby - (October 20, 1970)

Lunar flyby and earth return.

Luna 17 - USSR Lunar Lander and Rover - 5,600 kg - (November 10, 1970 - 1971)

Made lunar landing with an automated Lunokhod 1 rover.

1971 - 1975

Apollo 14 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 44,456 kg - (January 31 to February 8, 1971)

Crew: Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Edgar D. Mitchell, Stuart A. Roosa.

Shepard and Mitchell landed on the moon on February 5, 1971, in the Fra Mauro highlands, located at 3°40' S and longitude 17°28' E. They collected 42.9 kilograms of lunar samples and used a hand-held cart to transport rocks and equipment.

Mariner 8 - USA Mars Flyby - (May 8, 1971)

Failed to reach Earth orbit.

Kosmos 419 - USSR Mars Probe - (May 10, 1971)

Failed to leave Earth orbit.

Mars 2 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,650 kg - (May 19, 1971)

The Mars 2 lander was released from the orbiter on November 27, 1971. It crashed-landed because its breaking rockets failed - no data was returned and the first human artifact was created on Mars. The orbiter returned data until 1972.

Mars 3 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,643 kg - (May 28, 1971)

Mars 3 arrived at Mars on December 2, 1971. The lander was released and became the first successful landing on Mars. It failed after relaying 20 seconds of video data to the orbiter. The Mars 3 orbiter returned data until August, 1972. It made measurements of surface temperature and atmospheric composition.

Mariner 9 - USA Mars Orbiter - 974 kg - (May 30, 1971 - 1972)

Mariner 9 arrived at Mars on November 3, 1971 and was placed into orbit on November 24. This was the first US spacecraft to enter an orbit around a planet other than the Moon. At the time of its arrival a huge dust storm was in progress on the planet. Many of the scientific experiments were delayed until the storm had subsided. The first hi-resolution images of the moons Phobos and Deimos were taken. River and channel like features were discovered. Mariner 9 is still in Martian orbit.

Apollo 15 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 46,723 kg - (July 26 to August 7, 1971)

Crew: David R. Scott, James B. Irwin, Alfred M. Worden.

Scott and Irwin landed on the moon on July 30, 1971. The landing site was Hadley-Apennine at latitude 26°6' N and longitude 3°39' E. They collected samples amounting to 76.8 kilograms. A lunar Roving Vehicle was carried on this mission (and all subsequent ones) which allowed the astronauts to travel several kilometers from the landing site. The commander service module was the first to carry orbital sensors and to release a subsatellite into lunar orbit. Worden performed the first deep spacewalk to retrieve film from the service module.

Luna 18 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (September 2, 1971 - 1972)

Unsuccessful sample return attempt. Crashed during landing.

Luna 19 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 5,600 kg - (September 28, 1971 - 1972)

The orbiter is now in a lunar orbit.

Luna 20 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (February 14, 1972)

Landed on the moon and returned samples to the Earth. Landed on February 21, 1972 at Apollonius highlands located at latitude 3°32' N and longitude 56°33' E. 30 grams of lunar samples were returned to the Earth.

Pioneer 10 - USA Jupiter Flyby - 259 kg - (March 3, 1972)

Pioneer 10 flew by Jupiter on December 1, 1973. It passed 132,250 kilometers from Jupiter's cloud tops. It returned over 500 images of Jupiter and its moons. Pioneer 10's greatest achievement was the data collected on Jupiter's magnetic field, trapped charged particles, and solar wind interactions. The orbit boundary of Pluto was crossed on June 13, 1983. It has now left the solar system.

Venera 8 - USSR Venus Lander - 1,180 kg - (March 27, 1972)

Venera 8 arrived at Venus on July 22, 1972. It measure wind speed variations as it descended through the atmosphere: 100 meters/second above 48 kilometers, 40-47 meters/second at 42-48 kilometers, and 1 meter/second below 10 kilometers. It returned data for 50 minutes after it landed.

Apollo 16 - USA Manned Lunar Lander - 46,733 kg - (April 16-27, 1972)

Crew: John W. Young, Charles M. Duke, Jr., Thomas K. Mattingly II.

Young and Duke landed on April 21, 1972, at the Descartes crater located at latitude 9°00' N and longitude 15°31' E. They deployed instruments, drove the lunar rover, and collected 94.7 kilograms of samples during a 71-hour surface stay.

Apollo 17 - USA Manned Lunar Lander - 46,743 kg - (December 7-19, 1972)

Crew: Eugene A. Cernan, Harrison H. Schmitt, and Ronald B. Evans.

Cernan and Schmitt landed on the moon on December 12, 1972. The landing site was Taurus-Littrow at latitude 20°10' N and longitude 30°46' E. They returned 110.5 kg of rock and soil samples. The astronauts covered 30.5 kilometers in the lunar rover during a 75-hour stay.

Luna 21 - USSR Lunar Lander and Rover - 4,850 kg - (January 8, 1973)

Made lunar landing with an automated Lunokhod 2 rover.

Pioneer 11 - USA Jupiter/Saturn Flyby - 259 kg - (April 6, 1973 - November 1995)

Pioneer 11 flew by Jupiter on December 1, 1974 passing 42,900 kilometers from Jupiter's cloud tops. It took better pictures than Pioneer 10, and measured Jupiter's intense charged-particle and magnet field environment. As it flew by Jupiter it was given a gravity assist which swung it onto a course for Saturn. On September 1, 1979, Pioneer 11 flew past the outer edge of Saturn's A ring at a range of 3,500 kilometers. It traveled underneath the ring system and passed 20,930 kilometers from Saturn's cloud tops. It has now left the solar system.

Skylab - USA Space Station - (May 26, 1973)

Skylab, which was America's first space station, was manned for 171 days by three crews during 1973 and 1974. The space station included the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), which astronauts used to take more than 150,000 images of the Sun. Skylab was abandoned in February 1974 and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere in 1979.

Explorer 49 - USA Solar Probe - 328 kg - (June 10, 1973)

Solar physics probe placed in lunar orbit.

Mars 4 - USSR Mars Orbiter - 4,650 kg - (July 21, 1973)

Mars 4 arrived at Mars on February, 1974, but failed to go into orbit due to a malfunction of its breaking engine. It flew past the planet with in 2,200 kilometers of the surface. It returned some images and data.

Mars 5 - USSR Mars Orbiter - 4,650 kg - (July 25, 1973)

Mars 5 entered into orbit around Mars on February 12, 1974. It acquired imaging data for the Mars 6 and 7 missions.

Mars 6 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,650 kg - (August 5, 1973)

On March 12, 1974, Mars 6 entered into orbit and launched its lander. The lander returned atmospheric descent data, but failed on its way down.

Mars 7 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Soft Lander - 4,650 kg - (August 9, 1973)

On March 6, 1974, Mars 7 failed to go into orbit about Mars and the lander missed the planet. Carrier and lander are now in a solar orbit.

Mariner 10 - USA Mercury/Venus Flyby - 526 kg - (November 3, 1973 - March 24, 1975)

Mariner 10 was the first dual planet mission. It flew past Venus on February 5, 1974 for a gravity assist to the planet Mercury. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to have an imaging system. It recorded circulation in the Venusian atmosphere and showed the temperature of the cloud tops to be -23°C. Mariner 10 flew past Mercury 3 times on March 29, 1974, September 21, 1974, and March 16, 1975. These three encounters produced over 10,000 pictures with 57% planet coverage. It recorded surface temperatures ranging from 187°C to -183°C on the day and night sides. A weak magnetic field was detected but it failed to detect an atmosphere. Mariner 10 is now in a solar orbit.

Luna 22 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 5,600 kg - (May 29, 1974 - 1975)

Successfully entered lunar orbit.

Luna 23 - USSR Lunar Probe - 5,6000 kg - (October 28, 1974)

Crashed on the lunar surface.

Helios 1 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - 370 kg - (December 10, 1974 - 1975)

Solar probe is in a solar orbit; came within 47 million kilometers of the Sun.

Venera 9 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 4,936 kg (June 8, 1975)

Venera 9 arrived at Venus on October 22, 1975, three days before its sister spacecraft Venera 10. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers, and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 22, 1975. During a period of 53 minutes, it transmitted the first black and white images of the planets surface. It showed sharp-edged flat rocks and a basaltic terrain. The probe in now in a Venus orbit.

Venera 10 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 5,033 kg - (June 14, 1975)

Venera 10 arrived at Venus on October 25, 1975, three days after its sister spacecraft Venera 9. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers, and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 25, 1975. During a period of 65 minutes, it transmitted black and white images of the planets surface. The terrain was more eroded than at the Venera 9 landing site.

Viking 1 - USA Mars Orbiter/Lander - 3,399 kg - (August 20, 1975 - August 7, 1980)

Viking 1 and 2 were designed after the Mariner spacecraft. They consisted of an orbiter and lander. The orbiter weighed 900 kg and the lander 600 kg. Viking 1 went into orbit about Mars on June 19, 1976. The lander touched down on July 20, 1976 on the western slopes of Chryse Planitia. Both landers had experiments to search for Martian micro-organism. The results of these experiments are still being debated. The landers provided detailed color panoramic views of the Martian terrain. They also monitored the Martian weather. The orbiters mapped the planet's surface, acquiring over 52,000 images. Viking 1 orbiter was deactivate on August 7, 1980 when it ran out of altitude-control propellant. Viking 1 lander was accidentally shut down on November 13, 1982, and communication was never regained.

Viking 2 - USA Mars Orbiter/Lander - 3,399 kg - (September 9, 1975 - July 25, 1978)

Viking 1 and 2 were designed after the Mariner spacecraft. They consisted of an orbiter and lander. The orbiter weighed 900 kg and the lander 600 kg. Viking 2 went into orbit about Mars on July 24, 1976. The lander touched down on August 7, 1976 at Utopia Planitia. Both landers had experiments to search for Martian micro-organism. The results of these experiments are still being debated. The landers provided detailed color panoramic views of the Martian terrain. They also monitored the Martian weather. The orbiters mapped the planet's surface, acquiring over 52,000 images. Viking 2 orbiter was deactivate on July 25, 1978 when it ran out of altitude-control propellant. Viking 2 lander used Viking 1 orbiter as a communications relay, and had to be shut down at the same time as the orbiter on August 7, 1980.

1976 - 1980

Helios 2 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - (January 16, 1976)

Solar probe came within 43 million kilometers of the Sun.

Luna 24 - USSR Lunar Lander - 4,800 kg - (August 9, 1976)

The landing site was Mare Crisium at latitude 12°45' N and longitude 60°12' E. Samples amounting to 170 grams were returned from the moon.

Voyager 2 - USA Jupiter/Saturn/Uranus/Neptune Flyby - 800 kg - (August 20, 1977)

Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter on July 9, 1979, Saturn on August 26, 1981, Uranus on January 24, 1986, and Neptune on August 24, 1989.

Voyager 1 - USA Jupiter/Saturn Flyby - 800 kg - (September 5, 1977)

Voyager 1 flew by Jupiter on March 5, 1979, and Saturn on November 12, 1980.

Pioneer Venus 1 - USA Venus Orbiter - 582 kg - (May 20, 1978 - October 8, 1992)

Pioneer Venus 1 (also known as Pioneer 12) arrived at Venus on December 4, 1978. It operated continuously from 1978 until October 8, 1992, when contact was lost with the spacecraft. It was expected to burn up in the Venusian atmosphere 6 days later. The orbiter was the first spacecraft to use radar in mapping the planet's surface. The electron field experiment detected radio bursts presumably caused by lightening. No magnetic field was detected. From 1978 to 1988 the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere decreased by 10%. The reason for this decrease is unknown. Perhaps a large volcano erupted just before the orbiter arrived and the amount of sulfur dioxide slowly declined.

Pioneer Venus 2 - USA Venus Atmosphere Probe - 904 kg - (August 8, 1978)

Pioneer Venus 2 (also know as Pioneer 13) carried four atmospheric probes. One large and three smaller ones. They arrived at Venus on December 9, 1978 and plunged into the atmosphere. The four probes descended through the atmosphere by parachute while the spacecraft burned up high in the atmosphere. At a height of 70-90 kilometers the probes encountered a fine haze layer. Between 10-50 kilometers there was little atmospheric convection and below 30 kilometers the atmosphere was clear.

International Sun-Earth Explorer 3 - USA Interplanetary Monitor - 479 kg - (August 12, 1978)

The Internation Sun-Earth Explorer was renamed to International Cometary Explorer (ICE). On September 11, 1985 it passed through the plasma tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner.

Venera 11 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 9, 1978)

Venera 11 landed on Venus on December 25, 1978, and returned data for 95 minutes. The imaging systems failed.

Venera 12 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 14, 1978)

Venera 12 landed on December 21, 1978 and returned data for 110 minutes. Electrical discharges, probably from lightning, were recorded.

Solar Maximum Mission - USA Solar Probe - (February 14, 1980)

The Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) was designed to provide coordinated observations of solar activity, in particular solar flares, during a period of maximum solar activity. The spacecraft suffered an on-orbit failure. A repair mission on STS-41C in 1984, during which shuttle astronauts rendezvoused with SMM, was successful. SMM collected data until Nov. 24, 1989, and re-entered on Dec. 2, 1989.

1981 - 1985

Venera 13 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (October 30, 1981)

Venera 13 landed on Venus on March 1, 1982. It returned black and white, and the first color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be leucite basalt, a rare rock type on the Earth.

Venera 14 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (November 4, 1981)

Venera 14 landed on Venus on March 5, 1982. It returned black and white, and color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be tholeiitic basalt similar to that found at mid-ocean ridges on the Earth.

Venera 15 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 2, 1983)

Venera 15 arrived at Venus on October 10, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.

Venera 16 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 7, 1983)

Venera 16 arrived at Venus on October 14, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.

Vega 1 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Flyby - 4,000 kg - (December 15, 1984)

Vega 1 flew past Venus on June 11, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment failed. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 6, 1986. The Vega 1 probe is now in a solar orbit.

Vega 2 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Probe - 4,000 kg - (December 21, 1984)

Vega 2 flew past Venus on June 15, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment sampled anorthosite-troctolite which is found in the lunar highlands but is rare on Earth. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 9, 1986. The Vega 2 probe is now in a solar orbit.

Sakigake - Japan Comet Flyby - 141 kg - (January 7, 1985)

Comet Halley flyby took place on March 1, 1986.

Giotto - Europe Comet Flyby - 512 kg - (July 2, 1985)

Comet Halley flyby took place on March 13, 1986. After the Halley fly-by, Giotto was put into hibernation, and re-awoken in 1990. Using a close Earth flyby, its trajectory was changed to allow a close encounter with the Comet Grigg-Skjellerup on July 10th, 1992. The flyby distance was actually less than that at Halley (around 200 kilometers from the nucleus).

Suisei - Japan Comet Flyby - 141 kg - (August 18, 1985 - February 1991)

Comet Halley flyby took place on March 8, 1986.

1986 - 1990

Phobos 1 - USSR Mars Orbiter/Lander - 5,000 kg - (July 7, 1988)

Phobos 1 was sent to investigate the Martian moon Phobos. It was lost en route to Mars through a command error on September 2, 1988.

Phobos 2 - USSR Phobos Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (July 12, 1988)

Phobos 2 arrived at Mars and was inserted into orbit on January 30, 1989. The orbiter moved within 800 kilometers of Phobos and then failed. The lander never made it to Phobos.

Magellan - USA Venus Orbiter - 3,545 kg - (May 4, 1989 - 1994)

Magellan was released into Earth's orbit from a space shuttle and then injected into a transer orbit to Venus by an upper stage. Its primary mission was to map Venus using synthetic aperture radar. The surface of Venus is obscured by thick clouds of carbon dioxide that makes the surface invisible to optical instruments. It arrived at Venus on August 10, 1990. Its radar imaging system was able to produce images at 300 meters/pixel resolution.

Galileo - USA & Europe Jupiter Orbiter/Atmospheric Probe - 2,222 kg - (October 18, 1989)

Galileo was designed to study Jupiter's atmosphere, satellites and surrounding magnetosphere for 2 years. In order to get there, it used gravity assist techniques to pick up speed by flying past Venus on February 10, 1990. It then flew past the Earth & Moon on December 8, 1990 and then again on December 8, 1992. It has made encounters with asteroid 951 Gaspra on October 29, 1991, and asteroid 243 Ida on August 28, 1993.

Muses-A - Japan Lunar Orbiters - (January 24, 1990)

This consisted of two small orbiters but failed to send back data from their orbit around the Moon. This was the first non USA or USSR probe to reach Moon.

Hubble Space Telescope - USA & Europe Telescope - (April 25, 1990)

The Hubble Space Telescope has returned high-resolution images of Mars and the other outer planets of the Solar System. In July 1994, it photographed the collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter.

Ulysses - USA & Europe Solar Flyby - 370 kg - (October 6, 1990)

The Ulysses spacecraft is an international project to study the poles of the Sun and interstellar space above and below the poles. It used Jupiter for a gravity assist to swing out of the ecliptic plane and onward to the poles of the Sun. The Jupiter flyby was on February 8, 1992. The first solar polar passage was in June 1994. The spacecraft passed the solar equator in February 1995 and passed over the north pole in June 1995.

1991 - 1995

Yohkoh - Japan/USA/England Solar Probe - (August 31, 1991)

This spacecraft studied high-energy radiation from solar flares.

Mars Observer - USA Mars Orbiter - (September 25, 1992)

Communication was lost with Mars Observer on August 21, 1993, just before it was to be inserted into orbit.

Clementine - USA Lunar Orbiter - (January 25, 1994)

The official name for Clementine is "Deep Space Probe Science Experiment" (DSPSE). It was a Department of Defense program used to test new space technology. Clementine was a new design using lightweight structure and propellant systems. It spent 70 days (between February 6 and May 5, 1994) in lunar orbit. Its four cameras mapped the surface of the Moon at 125-250 meters/pixel resolution. Clementine also used a laser to gather altimeter data which will make it possible to generate the first lunar topographic map.

SOHO - Europe/USA Solar Probe - (December 12, 1995)

The main scientific purpose of SOHO (Solar and Helispheric Observatory) is to study the Sun's internal structure, by observing velocity oscillations and radiance variations, and to look at the physical processes that form and heat the Sun's corona and that give rise to the solar wind, using imaging and spectroscopic diagnosis of the plasma in the Sun's outer regions coupled with in-situ measurements of the solar wind. SOHO will be put into a "halo orbit" around the L1 Lagrange point -- the point 1.5 million kilometers (932,000 miles) away from us at which the gravitational pull of the Earth balances that of the Sun.

1996 - 2000

NEAR - USA Asteroid Orbiter - 805 Kg - (February 17, 1996)

The main scientific purpose of NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous) is to orbit near Earth asteroid 433 Eros. The spacecraft is scheduled to study the asteroid for one year after entering orbit in February 1999. NEAR imaged Comet Hyakutake in March 1996 and will fly within 1,200 kilometers of asteroid 253 Mathilde on June 27, 1997. This is the first of NASA's Discovery missions.

Mars Global Surveyor - USA Mars Orbiter - (November 7, 1996)

Mars Global Surveyor was inserted into an elliptical capture orbit on 12 September 1997. The spacecraft was initiated due to the loss of the Mars Observer and the basic design is after the Mars Observer. Mars Global Surveyor is designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. This data will be used to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.

Mars 96 - Russia Orbiter & Lander - (November 16, 1996)

Mars '96 consisted of an orbiter, two landers, and two soil penetrators that were to reach the planet in September 1997. The rocket carring Mars 96 lifted off successfully, but as it entered orbit the rocket's fourth stage ignited prematurely and sent the probe into a wild tumble. It crashed into the ocean somewhere between the Chilean coast and Easter Island. The spacecraft sank, carrying with it 270 grams of plutonium-238.

Mars Pathfinder - USA Lander & Surface Rover - 264 kg (lander), 10.5 kg (rover) - (December 4, 1996 - September 27, 1997)

Mars Pathfinder arrived at Mars on July 4, 1997 and impacted the surface at 16:57 UT (12:57 PM EDT) at a velocity of about 18 m/s (40 mph). It bounced about 15 meters (50 feet) into the air, bouncing another 15 times and rolling before coming to rest approximately 2.5 minutes after impact and about 1 km from the initial impact site. The landing site was in the Ares Vallis region is at 19.33 N, 33.55 W and was named the Sagan Memorial Station. A six-wheel rover, named Sojourner, rolled onto the Martian surface on July 6 at about 05:40 UT. Mars Pathfinder returned 2.6 billion bits of information, including more than 16,000 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. The last successful data transmission was on September 27, 1997, the 83rd day of the mission since landing on the surface. This is the second mission in NASA's low-cost Discovery series.

Cassini/Huygens - USA & Europe Saturn Orbiter/Titan Probe - (1997)

The aim of the joint ESA/NASA Cassini mission will be the exploration of the whole Saturnian system - the planet itself, its atmosphere, rings and magnetosphere, and some of its moons (Titan and the icy satellites). Titan is especially interesting because its atmosphere is supposed to have properties very close to those of the terrestrial atmosphere in pre-biotic conditions. The Cassini mission will consist of the NASA-provided Saturn Orbiter coupled with ESA's Huygens probe, which will be dropped into Titan's atmosphere. During the three hours of its descent to the surface of Titan, and after touchdown, Huygens will study the characteristics of Titan's atmosphere and surface.

Lunar Prospector - 295 kg - USA Lunar Orbiter - (January 6, 1998)

Lunar Prospector was launched on January 6, 1998 and arrived at the Moon on January 11, 1998. It is designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon, including the mapping of surface composition and possible ice deposits, the measuring of magnetic and gravity fields, and the study of lunar outgassing events. This data could help scientists plan a potential lunar base and develop theories of the formation of the Moon, Earth and Solar System. Its mission is scheduled to last one to three years.

Nozomi (Planet B) - Japan Mars Orbiter - (3 July 1998)

Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) launched this probe to study the Martian environment. This will be the first Japanese spacecraft to reach another planet. The spacecraft will encounter Mars in December of 2003.

Deep Space 1 (DS1) - USA Asteroid and Comet Flyby - (24 October 1998)

The Deep Space 1 (DS1) is the first of a series of technology demonstration probes being developed by NASA's New Millennium Program. The spacecraft flew by the Mars-crossing near-Earth asteroid 9969 Braille in July, 1999 and will fly by comet Borrelly in September 2001.

Mars Climate Orbiter - USA Mars Orbiter - (11 December 1998)

The Mars Climate Orbiter, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter, was a companion to the Mars Polar Lander. Its the mission was to study the Martian weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget. It was destroyed when a navigation error caused it to miss its target altitude at Mars by 80 to 90 kilometers, instead of entering the martian atmosphere at an altitude of 57 kilometers during the orbit insertion maneuver.

Mars Polar Lander - USA Mars Lander - (3 January 1999)

The Mars Polar Lander, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a companion to the Mars Climate Orbiter. It was to touch down on the southern polar layered terrain, between 73 S and 76 S, less than 1000 km from the south pole, near the edge of the carbon dioxide ice cap in Mars' late southern spring. The last telemetry from the spacecraft was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on 3 December 1999. No further signals have been received from the lander, the cause of this loss of communication is not known.

Deep Space 2 (DS2) - USA Mars Penetrators - (3 January 1999)

The Deep Space 2 (DS2) project is a New Millenium mission consisting of two probes which were to penetrate the surface of Mars near the south polar layered terrain and send back data on the sub-surface properties. On 3 December 1999 the probes were nearing Mars on a trajectory to enter the atmosphere and bring them to their intended landing site, but contact was never made with either probe and the mission was presumed lost.

Stardust - USA Comet Sample Return - (7 February 1999)

Stardust is scheduled to rendezvous with comet P/Wild 2 in January 2004, study the object, and collect material for analysis on Earth. The return capsule is scheduled to arrive back on Earth in January 2006.

IMAGE - USA Space Weather Satellite - (25 March 2000)

IMAGE is the first weather satellite for space storms. It is designed to study the global response of the Earth's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind.

2001 - 2005

2001 Mars Odyssey - USA Mars Orbiter - (7 April 2001)

The 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter will nominally orbit Mars for three years, with the objective of conducting a detailed mineralogical analysis of the planet's surface from orbit and measuring the radiation environment. The mission has as its primary science goals to gather data to help determine whether the environment on Mars was ever conducive to life, to characterize the climate and geology of Mars, and to study potential radiation hazards to possible future astronaut missions.

Genesis - USA Solar Wind Sample Return - 30 July 2001

The primary objective of the Genesis mission is to collect samples of solar wind particles and return them to Earth for detailed analysis.

CONTOUR - USA Fly-by of three Comet Nuclei - 4 July 2002

The Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR) will fly-by the comets Encke, Schwassmann-Wachmann-3, d'Arrest and possibly a fourth comet. Scientific objectives include imaging the nuclei at resolutions of 4 m, performing spectral mapping of the nuclei at resolutions of 100-200 m, and obtaining detailed compositional data on gas and dust in the near-nucleus environment.

Muses-C - Japan Asteroid Sample Return - (Nov/Dec 2002)

The primary scientific objective of the Muses-C mission is to collect a surface sample of material from an asteroid and return the sample to Earth for analysis.

SMART 1 - ESA Lunar Orbiter - 21 December 2002

The SMART-1 (Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology 1) is a lunar orbiter designed to test spacecraft technologies for future missions such as a solar-powered ion drive. It is to return data on the geology, morphology, topography, mineralogy, geochemistry, and exospheric environment of the Moon.

NEAP - USA Asteroid Nereus Rendezvous - 2002

Rosetta - ESA Comet Obiter and Lander - (12 January 2003)

Rosetta will investigate comet Wirtanen. The spacecraft will orbit the comet and drop two probes to land on it. During the spacecraft's eight-year voyage to Wirtanen, it will conduct flybys of the asteroids 3840 Mimistrobell and 2530 Shipka.

Mars Exploration Rovers - USA Two Mars Rovers - 22 May/4 June 2003

Mars Express - ESA Mars Orbiter and Lander - 1 June 2003

Lunar-A - Japan Lunar Orbiter and Penetrators - (1 September 2003)

Lunar-A will deliver three penetrators to the Moon's surface to study seismometry and thermal properties. The purpose is to learn more about the Moon's interior structure.

Selene - Japan Lunar Orbiter and Lander - 2003

Deep Impact - USA Comet Rendezvous and Impact - 1 January 2004

MESSENGER - USA mercury Orbiter - 23 March 2004

Pluto-Kuiper Express - USA Pluto Flyby - (2004)

Work on this mission has been stopped for budgetary reasons. NASA is now seeking proposals for a new Pluto / Kuiper Belt Mission. It was originally scheduled for launch around 2001 and to arrive at Pluto around 2013. The mission will consist of a pair of small, fast, relatively cheap spacecraft weighing less than 100 kilograms each. The spacecraft will pass within 15,000 kilometers of Pluto and Charon. They might include Russian Zond probes designed to study the Plutonian atmosphere.

Mars Reconnaisance Orbiter - USA Mars Orbiter - (12 August 2005)

ars Reconnaissance Orbiter reached Mars and went into orbit on Friday, 10 March 2006. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is designed to orbit Mars over a full martian year and gather data with six scientific instruments, including a high-resolution imager. [13]

THE LAUNCHING OF THE AMATURE ROCKET

The laws and rules have been determined by us, we launched our amature rocket. These laws:

Newton’s ‘Law’ of Gravity - F=GM1M2/r2

F=Force

G=Gravitational Constant

M1=Mass of object 1

M2=Mass of object 2

r=distance between objects

Keplar’s ‘Laws’

· The revolution of every planet is an ellipse with the star at one focus.

· A line joining a planet and its star sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.

· The squares of the orbital periods of planets are directly proportional to the cubes of the semi-major axis of the orbits - T^2\propto a^3

T=orbital period of planet

a=semimajor axis of orbit

The Rocket Equation (the auther is Tsiolkovsky) - ∆V=VEln(M0/M)

∆V= Changein velocity

VE=Rocket exhaust velocity

M0=Starting mass of the rocket/missile

M=Ending mass of the rocket/missile

We have carried out a questinnaire at school and found out that a very interesting man, a fan of space research, has been working in a town for more than 10 years. He is an engeneer, but his hobby is launching of rockets. Alexaunder Zaikin agreed to be our supervisor and helped us to shoot off small amateur rockets. It was really fantastic! You can see it with your own eyes on our photos.

ONE MILITARY EVENT IN SPACE

Chinese anti-satellite weapons test in space is provocative and irresponsible

At 5:28 p.m. EST on January 11, 2007, China launched a medium-range ballistic missile at an old weather satellite in-orbit. The test destroyed the satellite and allowed China to pick up the reins of a space arms race that the United States officially dropped 20 years ago. This move is even more portentous now, as the US is entirely dependent upon its space assets and has much to lose if it allows space to be weaponized.

China’s FY-1C weather satellite, in a polar orbit, was launched in 1999 and approaching the end of its lifespan, but it still worked eletronically. This capability allowed it to be tracked by Chinese radar and its path adjusted so that its orbit would be conducive to an intercept. However, to directly intercept an object moving roughly 15 000 mph takes a themendous amount of accuracy.

The FY-1C was spotted by various space surveillance networks on January, 11. It dissapeared from view and then reappeared on January, 12 in a cloud of debris. Hundreds of thousands of debris fragments could eventyally destroy one of the nearly 125 other satellites operating in the section of space where the FY-1C was hit.

China’s actio was irresponsible, and should be roundly condemned. The deliberate creation of persistent space debris in a highly used orbit is simply unacceptable behavior in space. [14]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.esa.int/esakidsen/semvy5wjd1e_ouruniverse_0.html

2. www.publicandprivateenterprise.org/

3. www.spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts116/

4. www.spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts116/

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_weapon&action=edit

6. www.rafmuseum.org.uk/cosford/collections/missiles/index.cfm

7. www.fantbook.com/english/payment.html

8. “Future Security in Space: Commercial, Military, and Arms Control Trade-Offs” James Clay Moltz “Monterey Institute of International Studies”, July 2002, p.32-34, 44

9. Jacob E. Smart, General, USAF, 1974

10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative

11. www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/arms/space-security-en.asp

12. www.solarviews.com/eng/craft1.htm

13. CDI newsletter

14. www.space.eads.net/

15. “The Physics of Space Security” David Wright, Laura Grego, and Lisbeth Gronlund “American Academy of Art & Science”, 2005

16. The Encyclopedia “Ya poznay mir” “Kosmos” “AST” Moscow, 1998

---

[1] www.esa.int/esakidsen/semvy5wjd1e_ouruniverse_0.html

[2] www.publicandprivateenterprise.org/

[3] www.spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts116/

[4] www.spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts116/

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_weapon&action=edit

[6] www.rafmuseum.org.uk/cosford/collections/missiles/index.cfm

[7] www.fantbook.com/english/payment.html

[8] Future Security in Space: Commercial, Military, and Arms Control Trade-Offs, James Clay Moltz, p.32-34, 44

[9] www.space.eads.net/

[10] Jacob E. Smart, General, USAF, 1974

[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative

[12] www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/arms/space-security-en.asp

[13] www.solarviews.com/eng/craft1.htm

[14] From CDI newsletter