Center for

Nonproliferation

Studies

MONTEREY

INSTITUTE

OF

INTERNATIONAL

STUDIES

Benchmark 2

by

Nail Timkanov

SCHOOL №39

OZYORSK

RUSSIA

March, 2007

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Existing and emerging space powers.

3. Historical timeline of US-Soviet competition in space.

4. Essay “What do we need to develop a space program?”

5. Essay “Benefits of a Space Program to Society.”

6. Major treaties & membership: multilateral treaties and bilateral treaties between the United States and Russia.

7. Timeline of the development of space-based defenses.

8. Database of national and international organizations that monitor possible military activities in space.

9. Conclusion “Everybody is Responsible!“

10.References

Introduction

“Taken as a story of human achievement, and human blindness,

the discoveries in the sciences are among the great epics.”

Robert Oppenheimer

In “Benchmark – I” I learned about the history of people’s interest in and interaction with space, why space might be interesting or fascinating, and began to learn about the technologies needed for use in space.

In “Benchmark – II” I will focus my attention on a deeper research of people’s interactions in space. I’ll examine decisions that have been made by various nations to use or “to develop” space, and investigate people’s approaches to controlling the use of space.

To understand the current world situation better and to make a profound investigation, I’ll do my best to gather data, to research and analyze the issues of space security within the context of the four domains:

· Scientific / environmental

· Economic

· Social / cultural

· Political / geo-political.

Existing and Emerging Space Powers

Nowadays there exit several countries that possess launch capabilities. Among the key space powers we can consider

Russia, the USA, China, Japan, the Ukraine, Israel,

and the EU. As to the emerging space powers,

among these are Brazil, India, S.Korea,

South Africa, Nigeria, Malaysia,

Iran, and Saudi Arabia.

Existing Space Powers

Russia

The USSR was an acknowledged leading space power. However, in the beginning of 1990s, because of the collapse of the Soviet Union and a constant lack of stable funding, the Russia Space Agency had certain difficulties in conducting of its national and international space programs. Of course, Roskosmos couldn’t pass over these problems and, in order to solve them, had to seek other ways to keep its space programs (for example, the operation of the space station Mir or the Soyuz and Progress missions) running. This resulted in Roskosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. Currently three space tourists have contracted with Roskosmos and have flown into space, each for an announced fee of $20 million.

Nowadays, with a rapid growth of the Russian economy, the government pays much more attention to the development of the national space program, and provides Roscosmos with a constant influx of a considerable amount of money. (In 2005, the budget was as high as ≈ 900 million USD.) Besides the state support and commercial space launch income, the Russia Space Agency has also managed to attract additional industry investments.

Speaking about Russian current space initiatives, it’s worth mentioning that nowadays Russia does its best to reestablish its space capabilities, particularly in the areas of ballistic missile early warning and space monitoring, to further cooperation with other countries, to promote scientific research and development, and to upgrade its spacecraft program.

Among the most important international projects, in which Russia plays a large part, we can name the International Space Station (ISS) program. Roscosmos contributed to the station the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda, which were both launched by Russian Proton rockets. Besides, Russia is responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecrafts and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters.

As to the Russian spacecraft upgrade program, it consists of the improvement of Soyuz space vehicles; the development of a new rocket system, Angara and an up-to date reusable transport system the Parom (Ferry), which will replace the Progress cargo craft; and, finally, the construction of a small lifting body reusable spacecraft called Kliper.

Speaking about Russian military space capabilities, it’s worth mentioning that Russia possesses reconnaissance, navigation, and communications satellites, ballistic missile early warning, space monitoring, anti-ballistic missile (ABM), and anti-satellite (ASAT) systems, but all these systems, except for the new dual-use GLONASS systems, are at varying stages of deterioration.

As to the launch facilities, it’s necessary to note that Russia launches its spacecrafts from Plesetsk and Baikonur Cosmodromes.

The applications of Russian space programs are both military and civilian. Besides, Roscosmos commits commercial launches. [1(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/russia/launch.htm)]

USA

The USA is one of the key space powers of the present.

Nowadays the USA has several federal bodies which inspect and oversee different aspects of space exploration. For instance, the American space agency (NASA) is responsible for civilian space programs. It has four primary objectives: aeronautics research, exploration systems, science, and space operations. [2(http://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/what_does_nasa_do.html.)]

As to U.S. military programs and missile early warning and defense, they are supervised by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). The Air Force, Army, and Navy also take an active part in military space operations. [3(http://www.stratcom.af.mil/)]

Speaking about U.S. launch capabilities, it’s worth mentioning that the United States has developed three launch vehicle families for military payloads—Titan, Delta, and Atlas—all based on ballistic missile technology.[1] These rockets are used to carry satellites to an orbit.

It won’t be an exaggeration to tell that the USA possesses a considerable amount of satellites which serve different military and civilian purposes: navigation, imagery and signal intelligence, communication, etc.

These satellites can be extensively used for coordination of troops and targets in various military operation; for getting data with the help of radars in night and all-weather conditions; for interception of radio and television broadcasts, cell phone communications, radar transmissions, and other electronic signals; for receiving nuclear-hardened, anti-jam communication links among the armed forces, the White House, and the State Department.

Besides, the United States is developing specific missile defense programs targeting each phase of a missile's flight path, with an initial emphasis on defense against intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the midcourse phase. Nowadays U.S. scientists and technologies carry out tests and conduct an intensive study of the project.

As to U.S. space programs, it’s evident that the USA has space technologies for both peaceful and military applications. [4(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/us/launch.htm)]

China

China is a strong space power, as it is one of three nations to have achieved success in recovering satellites and executing a manned space mission.

As to China’s manned program it’s necessary to mention that China had an early interest in manned space flights. The work on the project began in 1968, but the first successful manned mission took place only in October, 2003, when an astronaut Yang Liwei spent 21 hours on board of the Shenzhou V spacecraft, a prototype of the Russian Soyuz. The second flight was held two years later, in October 2005. In the mission participated two Chinese astronauts, Fei Juniong and Nie Haisheng. The flight lasted only 5 hours. The next manned mission is planned to be held in September, 2008.

Speaking about Chinese satellite launch capabilities, it’s worth mentioning that China has already executed 100 satellite launchings since 1970. All this missions were performed by means of Chinese Long March series principal launch vehicles which, in spite of limited payload capability, are very reliable and can reach large range of orbits.

As to the types of satellites, it’s necessary to note that China has a large variety of satellite programs. It possesses communication satellites (e.g. Dongfanghong Series), meteorological (e.g. Fengyun Series), remote sensing (e.g. Fanhuishi Weixing Series, Ziyuan Series), etc. Besides, China strives to develop its own positioning and navigation system called Beidou in order to gain independent GPS capability which is expected to be used for military and commercial purposes.

Speaking about Chinese launch sites it’s worth mentioning that country’s favorable geographical position provides it with multiple launch capabilities: Jiuquan Satellite Launch Centre in Gansu Province in the north-west of China, Xichang Space Launch Centre in Sichuan Province in the south-west of China, Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre in Shanxi Province in Northern China, and a nascent launch site on Hainan Island.

As to the application of space program it’s an open secret that China has pursuits in both civilian and military space technology. [5(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/china/launch.htm)]

European Space Agency (ESA) and EU

The European Space Agency (ESA) was established in 1975. It consists of 17 member states: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Greece, and Luxembourg.

As to the budget of the organization, it’s rather small: in 2005, it was ≈ 2.9 billion euros.

Speaking about the objectives, it’s necessary to note that the preliminary task of the ESA is to promote European space activities, to develop its scientific and technological capabilities, for example, such scientific projects as environmental monitoring and space exploration. In spite of the main orientation of the organization, it also focuses its attention on space-based military technologies.

Though ESA is an independent organization it has close ties with the EU, as they have a common aim - to promote the development of space capabilities that benefit European citizens.

Speaking about the main programs, it’s worth mentioning the Ariane launch vehicle, observation satellites the Helios, Sar-Lupe, Cosmo-Skymed, and Pleiades, the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) initiative, and the Galileo navigational satellite constellation. GMES is a project which aims at the creation an operational system for the provision and use of space-based information. GMES is expected to be used for security purposes and to enhance imagery and mapping capacities. Galileo, which will consist of 30 satellites, is the European prototype of the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and the Russian GLONASS navigation network. It’s an open secret that GMES and Galileo are expected to have both civilian and military applications.

ESA launches take place at the Guiana Space Center located near Kourou, French Guiana.

Speaking about the EU and the ESA in the whole, it’s worth mentioning that among all the member states leading positions in the field of space development and exploration belong to such countries as France, Germany, Italy and the UK. They participate in both ESA activities and national space projects.

The UK is one of the important actors of the ESA. A key focus of U.K. space activities is microsatellite technology.

France is also an important member state of the ESA. It has the largest space budget and is characterized by the increasing use of micro-satellites. Besides, it provides the ESA with an equatorial launch site in Kourou, French Guiana.

As for Italy, it does not possess its own launch vehicle, but it is leading the development of a new European launch vehicle, the Vega launcher. It finances 65% of this program.

Germany is considered to be the largest investor of the ESA. Besides, it possesses a considerable share of Arianespace program. [6(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/eu/launch.htm)]

Japan

The rise of Japan as a key space power began in 1970, and nowadays it is considered to be one of the key space powers by right. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has one of the largest budgets in the world. Traditionally, due to the adopted in 1969 resolution that outlined the country's development of space for peaceful purposes, all the investments were spent on the development of space capabilities, on scientific, non-military satellites and on telemetry, tracking, and control facilities, but nowadays the situation has cardinally changed. Since North Korea's test launch of a ballistic missile in 1998, Japan has begun to focus greater attention on its military uses of space. Nowadays Japan intends to change space policy to include military uses of space, so long as they are limited to defensive measures. In March 2003, Japan successfully launched two imaging reconnaissance satellites, Optical-1 and Radar-1, with the primary goal of monitoring North Korea's nuclear and military activities. In October 2004, the Japanese government began reviewing plans to supplement the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) by deploying the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and though originally this program was expected to have both civilian and military applications, later its peaceful capabilities were abandoned. In addition to this program, Japan has also been cooperating with the United States on missile defense since 1999

[7(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/japan/launch.htm)]

Ukraine

The Ukraine inherited many space capabilities from the USSR including launch capabilities. That’s why the Ukraine maintains close cooperation with Russia which leads to joint development and promotion of commercial uses of the Zenit, Tsiklon, and Dnepr launch vehicles and the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Besides this cooperation, in partnership with companies from the United States, Great Britain, Norway, and Russia, Ukraine's Yuzhnoye and Yuzhmash has a 15% share in the International Sea Launch Consortium, which conducts launches from a platform near Christmas Island in the Pacific Ocean using Zenit-3SL rockets.

As to the launch sites it is worth mentioning that Ukraine has no launch pad within its national boundaries. Instead, launches are conducted either at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan or at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia.

The aim of the country’s space exploration is mainly peaceful, that is the development of its scientific and technological capabilities.

[8(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/ukraine/launch.htm)]

Israel

It’s an open secret that Israel has launch capabilities and that it’s considered to be one of the key space powers, but speaking about this country I can’t but mention one very interesting and curious fact. Due to its geographic location, Israel is the only country that launches satellites westward, against the Earth's rotation, in order to avoid endangering civilian populations and also to prevent the overflight of neighboring Arab nations.  This requires a sacrifice in payload capacity so that more fuel can be added to provide the necessary thrust during launch. Israel's launching facility is located near the Palmachim Air Force Base, close to the Mediterranean coast and south of Tel Aviv.

As to the application of Israel’s space programs, it’s worth mentioning that all three primary satellite families: Eros, Ofek (or Ofeq), and Amos are dual-use. According to Haim Eshed, the head of space programs at the Israeli Defense Ministry, Israel's initial investment in its space program was driven by strategic considerations, especially the ability to observe the activities of other states without violating international law.  It is for this reason that the primary focus of Israel's space efforts has been and continues to be the development of high-resolution imaging capabilities.

[9(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/israel/launch.htm)]

Key Emerging Space Powers

Brazil

Brazil is one of the leading space powers in South America. It has developed its own prototype launch vehicle, the Vehiculo Lancador de Satelite (VLS) rocket, and possesses the Alcantara Launch Center in northeastern Brazil, which proximity to the equator reduces the amount of fuel required for launches, thus increasing the potential payload capacity and decreasing fuel costs. In addition, it has a launch centre called the Launch Center of the Barrier of Hell near the northeastern city of Natal. It’s primarily used for launchings of sounding rockets.

Speaking about international collaboration, it’s necessary to note that Brazil cooperates with other countries in the sphere of space exploration. One of the most important partners in this field is China. The obvious example of their fruitful collaboration is the China-Brazil Earth Resources (CBERS) project. Within the CBERS framework, China and Brazil have jointly developed and launched two remote-sensing satellites for real-time, civilian, environmental monitoring and are discussing the development of additional satellites, as well as marketing CBERS images to other countries.

As to the uses of space programs, Brazil is considered to be one of a group of countries "seriously involved in using space assets for military purposes.", as some of its project are dual-use and can even be dedicated to military purposes.

[10(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/brazil/launch.htm)]

India

India is one of fast-developing space nations. Among Indian launch vehicles we can distinguish the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV), the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), the only Indian rocket that could be used in a manned space mission. But in spite of the impressive space budget (≈ $500 million), a fair amount of nascent projects, its striving for cooperation and interest in reusable launch vehicle technology (which is under development, by the way), India, unlike other countries, focuses its attention on the unmanned space missions believing that it can achieve its space goals without sending men into space.

As for the uses of Indian space programs it’s necessary to mention that they center in such fields as science, commerce, agriculture, telemedicine and some other spheres of civilian national development. However, some certain satellites, such as the Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) launched in 2001 and Cartosat-1 launched in 2005, are dual-use and therefore can be used for both military and civilian space purposes.

[11(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/india/launch.htm)]

S. Korea

South Korea is one of the key emerging space powers because of its ambitions supported by vast sums of money. In 2001, the South Korean government set a goal of becoming one of the world's 10 leading space powers by 2015, and invested $4.26 billion in space research and development. But in spite of the fact that South Korea strives to develop independent space program, it still heavily depends on other countries, e.g. the USA and Russia. For example, its project KSLV-1 is based on Russian Angara program technologies. Besides, many of its satellites have been launched from Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome, as South Korean launch complex at Goheung, at the southwestern tip of the Korean Peninsula, which will allow for launches to LEO, GEO, and polar orbits, is still being built. As to a sub-orbital launch center which exists at Anhueng, it has been used only for sounding rocket flights since 1993.

Speaking about applications of its programs it’s necessary to note that South Korea is considered to be a stickler for the military utility of space. All the satellites launched by the country since 1990s (e.g. Arirang-1, Arirang-2, Mugunghwa-5) are multipurpose. This fact increases regional tension and worsens the relations with neighbor states. [12(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/skorea/launch.htm)]

Iran

Nowadays Iran has limited space capabilities. Re its national space technological development it relies for the most part on the achievements and assistance of such countries as Russia, China, North Korea, India, and Italy. The orientation of its investigations is purely civilian. Iran places high emphasis on peaceful space activities for the development of its culture, technology, science, and finance.

Speaking about its launch capabilities it’s necessary to note that Iran can’t boast of independence and great variety of space programs. Among its projects we can name the Shahab family of rockets based on North Korean missile technology, Iran’s first communications satellite Sinah-1 built in Russia in cooperation with Iranian scientists, the second and the third entirely civilian satellites called Mesbah and Zohreh launched for the purpose of telecommunication.

Due to the restricted geographical features of the country, possible launch sites in Iran are relatively limited: an area near Qom and Iran's southern coast on the Gulf of Oman.

[13(http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/iran/launch.htm)]

Among the key emerging space powers we can also reckon South Africa, Nigeria, Malaysia and Saudi Arabia.

Historical Timeline of US-Soviet Competition in Space

The United States of America and the Soviet Union were the main participants of the so-called Space race that took place in

the 20^th century. Nowadays Russia and the USA are two

nations that have left behind other countries in the

sphere of space exploration and space technologies.

So, I think, it will be interesting to examine

the US-Soviet competition in space.

Here is the result of my research.

USA	Soviet Union
1950
Cape Canaveral Launch Site Established Cape Canaveral, Florida, is established as a facility for rocket assembly and launch.
1951
Animals Successfully Flown in Rocket The U.S. Air Force makes the first successful recovery of animals from a rocket flight when a monkey and 11 mice are recovered from a flight to an altitude of 72,000 m (236,000 ft).
1955
U.S. and USSR Plan Satellite Launches Both the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) announce that they will attempt to launch satellites during the International Geophysical Year (July 1957–December 1958).
1957
	USSR Launches First Artificial Satellite The USSR launches the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, to study Earth’s upper atmosphere. The satellite weighs 83 kg (184 lb) and circles Earth in 95 minutes. The launch of Sputnik 1 marks the inauguration of the space age.
	Sputnik 2 Carries Dog into Space The spacecraft Sputnik 2, launched by the USSR, is placed in orbit carrying a dog named Laika. It is the first vehicle to carry a living organism into orbit. Laika dies in space.
1958
First U.S. Satellite Launched into Orbit The United States Army launches the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit around Earth. It is used to study cosmic rays.	First Space Lab Sent into Orbit The USSR launches the satellite Sputnik 3 into orbit. It contains the first multipurpose space laboratory and transmits data about cosmic rays, the composition of Earth's atmosphere, and ion concentrations.
Van Allen Radiation Belts A radiation counter designed by American astrophysicist James A. Van Allen and carried aloft by the U. S. satellite Explorer 4 discovers bands of trapped radiation surrounding Earth. These become known as Van Allen radiation belts.
NASA Created for Space Research The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is created for the research and development of vehicles and activities involved in space exploration.
First Voice Message Relayed from Space The United States launches Project SCORE (Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay Equipment), the first U.S. communications satellite. It broadcasts the first voice message from space, relaying messages stored on magnetic tape. The satellite functions for 13 days.
1959
Joint U.S.-USSR Space Venture Announced The administration of U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower announces preliminary plans for a joint space venture by the USA and the USSR.
Monkeys Successfully Sent into Space The U.S. Army sends two monkeys about 500 km (about 300 mi) into space. They are recovered, unharmed, in the Caribbean Sea.	Lunik 1 Escapes Earth's Gravity The USSR launches Lunik 1. The first spacecraft to escape Earth's gravity, it passes within 6,400 km (4,000 mi) of the Moon.
First Photo of Earth from Orbit Sent NASA launches the U.S. space probe Explorer 6. It investigates the Van Allen radiation belt discovered in 1958 by Explorer 1 and sends back the first photo of Earth from orbit	First Moon Probe The Soviet Union launches Luna 2, the first space probe to reach the moon. Designed to crash, it becomes, on September 15, the first artificial object on the lunar surface.
	Luna 3 Reveals the Moon's Far Side Soviet Union launches Luna (Lunik) 3. It is the first spacecraft to fly completely around the moon and the first to return photos of the far side of the moon.
1960
Pioneer 5 Explores Deep Space The United States launches Pioneer 5, which successfully explores the space between Earth and Venus. Pioneer 5 also transmits the first data on solar flares from space.
First Weather Satellite Launched by U.S. NASA launches the first weather satellite, Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS) 1. TIROS 1 transmits almost 23,000 photographs of Earth and its atmosphere.
Echo 1 Communications Satellite Launched NASA launches Echo 1, a 30-m (100-ft) aluminum-coated balloon used as a passive communications satellite to reflect radio waves. It remains in orbit for eight years and is a conspicuous object in the night sky. Its success leads to the development of the telecommunications satellite Telstar.
U.S. Navy Develops CMR System The U.S. Navy develops the Communications Moon Relay (CMR) system, which uses the Moon to reflect communication signals between Washington, D.C., and Hawaii.
1961
Alan Shepard is the First American in Space Less than one month after Yury Gagarin's flight, American astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., makes a 15-minute suborbital flight in the Mercury capsule Freedom 7 on May 5. He becomes the first American in space.	First Human in Space Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel in space. Launched aboard Vostok 1, he orbits Earth once, spending an hour and 48 minutes aloft.
JFK Commits to Landing a Man on the Moon U.S. president John F. Kennedy commits the country to landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth before the decade is out.	Titov Spends More Than a Day in Space Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, the second cosmonaut to be launched into space, completes 17 orbits in just over 24 hours in Vostok 2 and becomes the first person to spend more than a day in space.
1962
First U.S. Earth Orbit U.S. astronaut John H. Glenn becomes the first American to orbit Earth. Launched aboard Mercury 6, he makes three orbits, spending 4 hours 55 minutes in space before he and his space capsule, Friendship 7, are recovered.	USSR Sends Probes to Mars The USSR launches several probes to Mars. Only Mars 1 flies in the right direction, becoming the first spacecraft to fly past Mars, but it transmits no data because of a radio failure.
Communications Satellite Telstar Launched NASA launches the U.S. communications satellite Telstar for American Telephone and Telegraph Company from Cape Canaveral. Weighing 77 kg (170 lb) and orbiting Earth every 157.8 minutes, it is designed to receive a signal from the ground, amplify it, and then relay it to another ground station. Live television and voice transmissions last only 15 minutes per orbit, but they are the first to connect the television networks of Europe and North America.
Mariner 2 Space Probe The United States launches Mariner 2, which becomes the first space probe to reach the neighborhood of another planet when it flies past Venus on December 14.
U.S. and USSR Sign Space Agreement The USA and the USSR sign an agreement on cooperation for the peaceful use of outer space.
1963
U.S. Satellites Launched to Monitor USSR The USA secretively launches two military satellites designed to monitor Soviet compliance with the nuclear test-ban treaty signed October 7 by the United States, the USSR, and Great Britain.	Tereshkova Is First Woman in Space Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, is launched into a three-day orbital flight aboard Vostok 6 to study weightlessness.
	Khrushchev Denounces Race to Moon Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev states that the USSR will not race the United States to place a person on the Moon.
1964
First Joint U.S.-USSR Satellite Launched The passive radio communications satellite Echo II is launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. This is the first joint space venture between the USA and the USSR.
Mariner 4 Relays Data from Mars The United States launches Mariner 4 to Mars. It relays the first close-up photographs of the planet's surface as well as information on the Martian atmosphere.	Voskhod Carries Crew of Three into Orbit The Soviet Voskhod 1 mission, which carries three cosmonauts into orbit for a day, is the first spacecraft to have a multi-person crew.
1965
Gemini Spacecrafts Rendezvous in Orbit United States spacecraft Gemini 6 and 7 move within 0.3 m (1 ft) of each other as they orbit together around the earth. The rendezvous helps the astronauts practice techniques needed for later Apollo program lunar missions.	Alexei Leonov Walks in Space The USSR launches Voskhod 2, carrying cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonov. Leonov is the first person to step out of a spacecraft and walk in space. He spends more than 20 minutes outside the spacecraft.
1966
	Luna 9 Successfully Lands on Moon Soviet spacecraft Luna 9 (launched January 31) makes the first soft landing on the Moon and transmits panoramic photographs and soil data for three days.
	Luna 10 Orbits the Moon USSR launches Luna 10. On April 4th it becomes the first space vehicle to orbit the moon. The spacecraft carries instruments to study radiation and meteorites.
1967
Apollo 1 Catches Fire During Rehearsal Three U.S. astronauts, Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, die in a fire during a countdown rehearsal on the Apollo 1 spacecraft at Cape Kennedy. They are the first human casualties of the U.S. space program.	Komarov Dies During Soyuz 1 Descent Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov dies during the descent of the Soyuz 1 spacecraft, when his parachute fails to open properly. His death is the first ever on a space mission.
	Venera 4 Lands on Venus Soviet spacecraft Venera 4 (launched June 12) lands on Venus. The first soft landing on another planet, its instrument-laden capsule transmits information about Venus's atmosphere.
1968
First Piloted U.S. Apollo Mission Sent Apollo 7, the first U.S. Apollo space mission with a crew, tests the command module used on subsequent flights to the Moon during 163 orbits of Earth. The crew makes the first live transmission from space on October 13.
Piloted Mission Apollo 8 Orbits Moon The U.S. spacecraft Apollo 8 is launched, becoming the first piloted mission to achieve lunar orbit on December 24. Crewed by U.S. astronauts Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders, it orbits the Moon ten times.
1969
First Moon Landing U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, Apollo 11 crew members, become the first people to walk on the Moon.	First Experimental Space Station Formed Two cosmonauts aboard Soviet spacecraft Soyuz 5 (launched January 15) dock and transfer to Soyuz 4 (launched January 14). Locked together for four hours, these spacecraft form the first experimental space station.
1970
X-Ray Sources Explored by SAS The Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS) is launched by the United States. It catalogs X-ray sources and leads to the development of the High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO).
1971
Mariner 9 Enters Orbit Around Mars The U.S. space probe Mariner 9 (launched on May 30, 1971) enters orbit around Mars, becoming the first artificial object to orbit another planet. It transmits over 7,000 photographs of Mars and its two moons Deimos and Phobos.	First Space Station The Soviet Union launches Salyut 1, the first space station. On April 24th, Soyuz 10, carrying three cosmonauts, becomes the first craft to dock with the station.
1972
Space Shuttle Program Established U.S. president Richard Nixon authorizes a $5.5-billion, 6-year program to develop plans for a spaceship capable of undertaking multiple missions, thereby launching the space shuttle program.
Last Apollo Mission to Moon Launched Apollo 17, commanded by U.S. astronaut Eugene Cernan, is launched. This 12-day mission is the last piloted Apollo mission to the Moon.
1973 - 1974
Spacecraft Visits Jupiter Pioneer 10, launched by the United States on March 3, 1972, becomes the first space probe to pass Jupiter. It reveals that the planet has a strong and complex magnetic field.
U.S. Skylab Visited by Three Crews The United States places the first Skylab space station into orbit around Earth. It is visited by three three-person crews. Astronauts make observations of the Sun, manufacture superconductors, and conduct other scientific and medical experiments from Skylab.
Mariner 10 Photographs Mercury The U.S. probe Mariner 10 is launched. Mariner 10 takes the first photographs of the surface of Mercury, in March and September of 1974 and in March 1975.
1975
Helios 1 Passes Sun and Returns Data The space probe Helios 1 (launched December 10, 1974), created by the USA and West Germany, passes the Sun at a distance of 45 million km (28 million mi). The probe returns information about the Sun's magnetic field and solar wind.
1978
Seasat 1 Launched to Study Earth's Seas The U.S. satellite Seasat 1 is launched to measure the temperature of sea surfaces, wind and wave movements, ocean currents, and icebergs. It operates for 99 days before its power fails.
1979
Voyager 1 and 2 Explore Giant Planets The U.S. space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are launched. In their joint mission, these probes explore all the giant outer planets of the solar system, 48 of the planets' moons, and each of the planets' systems of rings and magnetic fields. Voyager 1 discovers a ring around Jupiter and two moons (the 15th and 16th), as well as three moons around Saturn (the 13th, 14th, and 15th).
Pioneer 11 Flies by Saturn Pioneer 11, launched by the U.S. on April 6, 1973, becomes the first space probe to reach the vicinity of Saturn. It discovers previously unknown rings and moons plus characteristics of Saturn's magnetic field.
1981
Space Shuttle Columbia The United States introduces the first reusable spacecraft when it launches Columbia, the first in a series of space shuttles.
1983
Pioneer Leaves Solar System Pioneer 10, launched by the USA on March 3, 1972, crosses the orbit of Neptune and becomes the first human-made object to escape the solar system.
Ride Completes Challenger Mission A mission by the U.S. space shuttle Challenger includes astronaut Sally Ride, the first American woman to go into space.
Bluford First African American in Space Guion Bluford becomes the first African American to go into space when he flies aboard the U.S. space shuttle Challenger.
1984
	Savitskaya First Woman to Walk in Space Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya becomes the first woman to walk in space. She is the second woman ever to fly in space.
1986
Space Shuttle Challenger Explodes The U.S. space shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after takeoff from Cape Canaveral. All seven crew members are killed in the explosion, including Christa McAuliffe, an American schoolteacher and the first non-astronaut to participate in the U.S. space program.	Soviet Union Launches Mir Space Station The USSR launches Mir, a space station designed to provide long-term accommodations for crew members while in orbit around Earth. Cosmonauts and astronauts aboard perform many scientific experiments dealing with space.
1989
Voyager Visits Neptune Voyager 2, launched by the USA on August 20, 1977, becomes the first spacecraft to fly past Neptune. It previously passed Jupiter and Saturn, and was the first spacecraft to visit Uranus.
1990
Hubble Space Telescope The first optical telescope in space, the Hubble Space Telescope, is launched into Earth orbit by the U.S. space shuttle Discovery.
1991
Galileo Photographs Asteroid Gaspra The U.S. space probe Galileo takes the closest picture ever taken of an asteroid—Gaspra—at a distance of 1,600 km (1,000 mi).
1992
U.S. Probe Magellan Maps Venus's Surface The U.S. space probe Magellan maps 98 percent of the surface of Venus to a resolution of 100 m (350ft).
Ulysses Probe Flies Over Jupiter's Poles The U.S. space probe Ulysses flies over the north and south poles of Jupiter to enter a trajectory for reaching the south pole of the Sun. Ulysses transmits data about Jupiter's magnetosphere.
1993
First Asteroid Moon Discovered The U.S. space probe Galileo discovers the first asteroid moon. About 1.5 km (about 1 mi) across and named Dactyl (in 1994), this moon orbits the asteroid Ida.
1994
Russian Cosmonaut Flies on U.S. Shuttle Russian cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev serves on a six-member crew aboard the U.S. space shuttle Discovery. He is the first cosmonaut to fly on a U.S. mission in space.
1995
Collins Is First Woman to Pilot Shuttle The U.S. space shuttle Discovery is piloted by Eileen Collins, the first woman to pilot a space shuttle mission.
1996
NEAT System Detects 200 New Asteroids The U.S. Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) system, in its first full month in operation, detects about 200 new asteroids	Wheat Crop Cultivated in Space Cosmonauts aboard the Mir space station successfully harvest a small wheat crop, the first plants to be successfully cultivated from seed in space.
Ice and Possibly Life Exist on Europa Scientists at the U.S. NASA report that life may exist on Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons. This report is based on new images of Europa taken by the spacecraft Galileo, revealing icy floes on Europa’s surface.
Mars Global Surveyor 96 Launched NASA launches the Mars Global Surveyor 96 probe. The objectives of the probe are to study the magnetic field, climate, and composition of the atmosphere of Mars.
Frozen Lake Found at Moon's South Pole American astronomer Anthony Cook, using data from the U.S Department of Defense satellite Clementine, announces the discovery of a frozen lake at the bottom of a crater at the south pole of the Moon.
NASA Launches Mars Pathfinder NASA launches the Mars Pathfinder. Its main goal is to demonstrate the feasibility of exploration of Mars. The spacecraft carries a wheeled roving machine called Sojourner to explore the surface.
1997
Planetesimal Found A team of United States astronomers reports the discovery of a new class of cometlike objects orbiting the Sun beyond Neptune. They call the objects miniplanets or planetesimals.
Mars Pathfinder Lands on Mars The U.S. spacecraft Mars Pathfinder lands on Mars. Two days later the probe's rover Sojourner, a six-wheeled vehicle that is controlled by an Earth-based operator, begins to explore the area around the spacecraft.
1998
John Glenn Returns to Space at Age 77 Thirty-six years after he became the first U.S. astronaut to orbit Earth, John Glenn makes history again as the oldest person to go into space. The 77-year-old Glenn and six other crew members blast off in the space shuttle Discovery from Cape Canaveral.
International Space Station Astronauts aboard the U.S. space shuttle Endeavour connect and outfit the first two sections of a new international space station. They attach the U.S.-built module Unity to the Russian-built Zarya module, which had been placed in orbit on November 20, 1998.
2001
First Space Tourist Sixty-year-old California financier Dennis Tito lifts off into space aboard Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft and becomes the world’s first paying space tourist. Tito, who paid Russia a reported $20 million for the trip, spent six days on the International Space Station before returning to Earth.
2003
Space Shuttle Columbia Breaks Apart While Entering Earth’s Atmosphere The space shuttle Columbia breaks apart in flames and disintegrates over Texas during reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard. The catastrophe occurs as the shuttle returns from a 16-day scientific mission and attempts to descend toward a landing at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration grounds the space shuttle fleet indefinitely pending the completion of an investigation into the cause of the accident.

[14(Microsoft Encarta 2006 Premium Encyclopedia,

Microsoft Corporation, 2006.)]

Essay

“What Do We Need to Develop

a Space Program?”

It won’t be an exaggeration to say that the process of the development of a space program is a costly business which, apart from huge investments and state financial support, requires backbreaking work from all the staff.

First of all, it’s necessary to make a plan of the work. This part depends on functioning of economic and financial departments. Then we must choose the right raw materials for building constituent parts of a space ship, including its engines, paneling space-suits and so no. Then it’s important to develop and test technologies in order to choose the most appropriate, effective and cheap one. Of course this work is impossible without well-qualified and industrious personnel able to realize the most ambitious plans and projects. Scientists, technologists, physicians and mathematicians conduct tests and carry out experiments, make a research of the choice of the materials, fuel and technologies. In addition to the scientists, we need to take workers on the staff. They will build the spacecraft or a satellite. When the program is in progress, it’s necessary to have a special department that will work on maintenance of the program in orbit.

Speaking about possible costs, according to unclassified data they amount to millions of dollars. For example, speaking about the U.S. Shuttle program, its total cost has been $145 billion as of early 2005, and is estimated to be $174 billion in 2010. These sums, of course, don’t include per-launch costs.

[15(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program)]

As to NASA budget, in 2006 it stood at $16.5 billion. Besides, "the United States “maintains the largest military space program of any country, accounting for 95% of world military space spending. It is expected to increase its spending from $18.5 billion in 2003 to $25 billion by 2010”.

[16(www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy06/pdf/budget/nasa.pdf.)]

In Russia, Roskosmos' Federal Space Program for 2006-15, approved in May of 2005, asked for federal spending of 305 billion rubles through 2015. Besides, due to its commercial launch prospects focused on cost-effective technologies and international partnerships, Roscosmos gets additional financing of some space programs. [17 (I.Safronov, "The Russian Space Agency Is Asking for Another 0.03 Percent of the GDP," Kommersant, May 23, 2005.)]

The budget of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), created in September 2003, in 2004 was $2.7 billion. [18(James Brooke, "After Failures, Space Effort in Japan Gets a Lift," New York Times online edition, February 27, 2005.)] But during the recent years, it has noticeably increased.

In 2004, Brazil dedicated approximately $35 million to its space program, and already in 2005 the Brazilian Space Agency got $100 million for the space budget. [19("Brazil: Space Agency Sets Program's Budget Goal for 2005 at $100 Million," Gazeta Mercantil (Sao Paulo), January 10, 2005.)]

As to S.Korea, in 2001, its government set a goal of becoming one of the world's 10 leading space powers by 2015. This objective led to additional federal funding. The investment made in 2001 amounted $4.26 billion. [20(http://www.spaceandtech.com/digest/sd2001-01/sd2001-01-003.shtml.)]

So, as we can see, the costs of space programs are very high. These expenditures and the fact that there are a lot of problems of maintaining these systems in orbit allow some critics to argue about the necessity of the space programs to society, in spite of all the benefits they bring. As to me, I am sure that space programs have already become an essential part of our every day life. That’s why, in the next section of my work, I want to focus my attention on the benefits of space programs to mankind.

Essay

Benefits of a Space Program to Society

To function effectively in today’s society we can’t do without innovative technologies. Fortunately, nowadays space technology spin-offs have placed at our disposal a fair amount of opportunities. Space innovations have found their way into a vast array of pioneering civil applications and have become so much a part of the very fabric of our daily lives that we may not even recognize them, present as they are in so many of the activities that we take for granted today.

The most widespread spheres of the use of space technologies are environment, civil protection and safety, science, medicine, civil engineering, industry, commerce, agriculture, fisheries, air service, overland vehicles, telecommunication in business and in everyday life, leisure and some other more commonplace domestic applications.

Speaking about the benefits of space programs to the society it’s necessary to note that satellites can provide a useful tool for science and environmental studies like the observation of tides, currents and other natural phenomena. This can help scientists to generate information about our planet and to study it in detail.

Space technologies also allow studying fauna. For example, using the NASA software which was originally created to store data for analyzing Space Shuttle heat shield tiles, experts from the National Marine Mammal Laboratory in Seattle Washington have got a chance to keep track of the whales in the North Pacific Ocean by applying an advanced computerized photo matching technique for whale identification based on the fact that every humpback whale tail is unique as human fingerprints. The same investigation may be carried out to follow the movement and migration of species that might be in danger, and to study their behavior and to monitor their habitats.

Mention should be made of the fact that mutual work of ecologists and scientists from space agencies can help to deal with the consequences of natural and man-caused accidents. For example, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Marshall Space Flight Center realized the idea of Petrol Rem, Inc. of Pittsburgh, Penn. and designed the tiny beeswax balls (microcapsules) which help to get rid of oil spills. This technology has cut down costs and proved to be effective and all environmentally safety.

Besides the listed scientific and environmental uses for space programs we can mention the adaptation of satellite remote sensing technology for the purpose of determination of the location of forest fires. Such use of space technologies can help to extinguish a fire quickly, to avoid human victims and to preserve flora and fauna of the forest. Moreover, in order to lighten the work of firefighters, NASA’s Johnson Space Flight Center has adapted the portable life support systems used by astronauts on the moon and designed a new breathing system, made up of a face mask, frame and harness, a warning device, and an air bottle. The new face mask is rather light, more convenient and provides better visibility. The use of this breathing system has already resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of injuries caused by breathing smoke and fumes.

Undoubtedly, space programs (for example, satellites) can be a valuable tool in such crisis and emergency situations as earthquakes, floods, landslides, tsunamis and avalanches. Due to their high reliability and independence from ground infrastructure they can be of paramount importance to the civil protection authorities in managing disasters. They can help to monitor and predict nature hazards, and thereby to optimize reaction time. Besides they can provide navigation and appropriate management of resources and personnel during emergency operations. The use of satellites in this area will result in the increase of effectiveness of such operations and will undoubtedly contribute to the saving of additional lives.

Describing the civil applications of space programs it’s necessary to emphasize that with every passing day space technologies become more and more important in such fields of knowledge as medicine. Examples of this abound: technology used to study space probe photographs sent back to Earth is now being used to analyze human chromosomes and could lead to disease prediction in infants; highly sensitive instruments originally designed for use in space have been adapted to assist the medical profession; technology developed for monitoring changes in the Earth's atmosphere is now being used for the early detection of breast cancer; or "camera-on-a-chip" technology developed at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., may help physicians to track the onset of osteoporosis and other serious diseases. Besides, space technologies are used to produce artificial limbs and carry out bloodless surgical operations. Moreover, the results of physiological experiments to which astronauts are subjected – on breathing patterns, for example – are contributing to advances in medical techniques.

It’s an open secret that nowadays satellite image data products and services are also essential tools in increasingly diversified business applications such as agriculture and fisheries, urban planning, geological exploration and risk management. They are very important in farming as they help to look after the crop from the orbit and to send data to Earth; to suckle animal's young and to irrigate fields. As for fisheries, it’s worth mentioning that remote sensing technology is used by fishermen to locate fish. The satellite data tells them where in the ocean the temperature is right for a particular type of fish. Besides, satellite images allow ship captains to learn weather forecasts, to find the most favorable winds and currents and thus to save time and fuel. Speaking about the innovative industrial applications it’s necessary to emphasize the application of new ‘greener’ and less polluting forms of energy, first used on spacecraft, for terrestrial vehicles and enterprises. Besides, space programs play a key role in business communication as they allow holding a video-conference with work colleagues and providing the Internet access.

It should be note that satellite-based positioning and precise timing information is also widely used in many industrial, public and consumer sectors, as diverse as tourism, transport, aviation and banking transactions.

Besides, space assets, with their capability to generate and transfer information at regional or global scales, ply a leading role in developing the ‘information society’, linking geographically isolated users into the full communications infrastructure. This can contribute to bringing innumerable benefits in areas such as e-learning and telemedicine.

As for daily routine, it won’t be an exaggeration to say that we interact with space technology personally every day when we watch satellite TV, when we consult the weather forecast, when we pick up the phone to contact someone, be they on the other side of the world or just down the road.

So, I can say that the list of benefits of space programs to the society is inexhaustible. Technology transfers which have successfully come back to Earth offer us a great choice of new, more reliable products making our life convenient and comfortable. Besides, the use of space programs is also of benefit in manufacturing and service sectors. [21(http://techtran.msfc.nasa.gov/at_home.html)]

Major Treaties & Membership

Multilateral Treaties

1963

Limited Test Ban Treaty (formally Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water) is a treaty that banned all tests of nuclear weapons except those conducted underground.

The origins of the treaty lay in worldwide public concern over the danger posed by atmospheric radioactive fallout produced by the above-ground testing of nuclear weapons. This problem had become an important public issue by 1955, but the first negotiations to ban nuclear tests foundered on differing proposals and counterproposals made by the United States and the Soviet Union, which were the two dominant nuclear powers at the time. During most of 1959 both the United States and the Soviet Union temporarily suspended their testing, but negotiations over the next two years were slowed by renewed Cold War tensions between the two nations. A gradual rapprochement between the United States and the Soviet Union was speeded up by the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962), which vividly illustrated the dangers of nuclear confrontation. The Anglo-American and Soviet proposals for a draft treaty came to resemble one another during late 1962, and, after only 10 days of discussion in Moscow in July–August 1963, representatives of the three nuclear powers pledged themselves for an “unlimited duration” to conduct no more nuclear-weapons tests in the atmosphere, underwater, or in space.

The Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty was signed in Moscow on Aug. 5, 1963, by the United States, the U.S.S.R., and the United Kingdom as the original parties. The treaty banned nuclear-weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater but permitted underground testing and required no control posts, no on-site inspection, and no international supervisory body. It did not reduce nuclear stockpiles, halt the production of nuclear weapons, or restrict their use in time of war. The treaty was signed within a few months by more than 100 governments, notable exceptions being France and the People's Republic of China. The three original parties to the treaty, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, have the power to veto treaty amendments. Any amendment must be approved by a majority of all the signatory nations, including all three of the original parties.

[22(http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/ltbt/text/ltbt2.htm)]

1967

The Outer Space Treaty (formally Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies) is an international treaty binding the parties to use outer space only for peaceful purposes.

In June 1966 the United States and the Soviet Union submitted draft treaties on the uses of space to the United Nations. These were reconciled during several months of negotiation in the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and the resulting document was endorsed by the UN General Assembly on the 19^th of December, 1966, and opened for signature on the 27^th of January, 1967. The treaty came into force on the 10^th of October, 1967, after being ratified by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and several other countries.

Under the terms of the treaty, the parties are prohibited from placing nuclear arms or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit, on the Moon, or on other bodies in space. Nations cannot claim sovereignty over the Moon or other celestial bodies. Nations are responsible for their activities in space, are liable for any damage caused by objects launched into space from their territory, and are bound to assist astronauts in distress. Their space installations and vehicles shall be open, on a reciprocal basis, to representatives of other countries, and all parties agree to conduct outer-space activities openly and in accordance with international law.

[23(http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5181.htm#signatory)]

1972

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects

On June 30, after almost a decade of work, the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space succeeded in drafting a convention on international liability for damage caused by objects launched into outer space. The committee, which works by consensus, decided that a nation will be "absolutely liable" to pay any damages (including personal injury) caused on the earth's surface or to aircraft in flight by an object it sends into space. This convention received 82 ratifications and 25 signatures.

[24(http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/liability.html)]

1976

Convention on the Registration of Space Objects Launched into Outer Space

This convention requires international notification of the function and orbit of all space launches. In other words, The Registration Convention provides that the launching State should furnish to the United Nations, as soon as practicable, the following information concerning each space object:

· name of launching state;

· an appropriate designator of the space object or its registration number;

· date and territory or location of launch;

· basic orbital parameters, including:

1. nodal period (the time between two successive northbound crossings of the equator - usually in minutes);

2. inclination (inclination of the orbit - polar orbit is 90 degrees and equatorial orbit is 0 degrees);

3. apogee (highest altitude above the Earths surface - in kilometers);

4. perigee; (lowest altitude above the Earths surface - in kilometers);

· general function of the space object.

As of 1 January 2006, 45 States have ratified, 4 have signed and two international intergovernmental organizations (European Space Agency and European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites) have declared their acceptance of the rights and obligations provided for in the Registration Convention.

[25(http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SORegister/regist.html)]

1979
The Moon Treaty

After seven years of negotiations, the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies was adopted by consensus by the United Nations General Assembly on December 5, 1979.

Under the agreement, the moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of humankind and are not subject to national appropriation. The states that are parties to the agreement will establish an international regime to govern exploitation of the moon's natural resources. The regime's main functions will be to ensure the safe development and rational management of the moon's natural resources and the equitable distribution, among the parties to the agreement, of the benefits derived from those resources. The agreement contains provisions dealing with the protection of human life on celestial bodies and with freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information about the moon. The treaty provides that the moon and other celestial bodies are to be used "exclusively for peaceful purposes." It prohibits the establishment of military bases, installations, and fortifications, as well as the testing of any type of military weapon and the conducting of military maneuvers on the moon. The treaty was approved by 10 parties. Five countries signed to the document.

[26(http://www.unoosa.org/SpaceLaw/moontxt.htm)]

Bilateral Treaties between the United States and Russia

1972

Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT) I Interim Agreement

Accepted in 1972, this agreement allows the use of satellites (national technical means of verification) for treaty verification and forbids interference with these satellites.

[27(http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/salt1/text/salt1.htm)]

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

The 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty signed by the United States and the USSR limited the implementation of antiballistic missile systems. In other words, it prohibits the development of nation-wide defenses against long-range missiles and bans the development, testing, or deployment of space-based missile defense components. Russia developed one system around Moscow, and this system still exists although it is very old. The United States had a system in North Dakota but closed it down due to cost and reliability issues. However, in 2001 the administration of United States president George W. Bush announced that it was unilaterally withdrawing from the ABM treaty. Some critics of the decision called it destabilizing because other nations could interpret it as a move by the United States toward a first-strike strategy. Other critics of the decision focused on the problematic costs and reliability of ABM systems.

[28(http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/abm/abm2.html)]

1987

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

The 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty required the United States and the Soviet Union to eliminate and permanently forswear all of their nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers. The treaty marked the first time the superpowers had agreed to reduce their nuclear arsenals, eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons, and utilize extensive on-site inspections for verification. As a result of the INF Treaty, the United States and the Soviet Union destroyed a total of 2,692 short-, medium-, and intermediate-range missiles by the treaty's implementation deadline of June 1, 1991. Neither Washington nor Moscow now deploys such systems.

Although the INF ban originally applied only to U.S. and Soviet forces, the treaty's membership expanded in 1991 to include successor states of the former Soviet Union. Today, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine join Russia and the United States in the treaty's implementation. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan possessed INF facilities but forego treaty meetings with the consent of the other states-parties.

Although active states-parties to the treaty total just five countries, several European countries have destroyed INF-banned missiles since the end of the Cold War. Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic destroyed their intermediate-range missiles in the 1990s, and Slovakia dismantled all of its remaining intermediate-range missiles in October 2000 after extensive U.S. prodding. On May 31, 2002, the last possessor of intermediate-range missiles in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, signed an agreement with the United States to destroy all of its INF Treaty-relevant missiles. Bulgaria completed the destruction five months later with U.S. funding.

[29(http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/INFtreaty.asp?print)]

1991

Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START) I forbids interference with satellite treaty verification measures.

START I was signed July 31, 1991, by the United States and the Soviet Union. Five months later, the Soviet Union dissolved, leaving four independent states in possession of strategic nuclear weapons: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. On May 23, 1992, the United States and the four nuclear-capable successor states to the Soviet Union signed the "Lisbon Protocol," which makes all five nations party to the START I agreement. START I entered into force December 5, 1994, when the five treaty parties exchanged instruments of ratification in Budapest. All treaty parties met the agreement's December 5, 2001 implementation deadline.

[30(http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/18535.htm)]

Timeline of the Development of Space-based Defenses

September 8, 1944 – The “Missile Age” begins as the first German V-2 missile strikes London.

1944-1945 – The first anti-ballistic missile concepts emerge as Allies develop a plan to use timed anti-aircraft barrages to defend London against incoming V-2 missiles. The plan was never implemented due to the damage which would result from unexploded shells falling back on the city.

August 6, 1945 – The US B-29 bomber Enola Gay deploys the first nuclear weapon in history when it drops a 9,700-pound uranium bomb, nicknamed “Little Boy” over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The attack kills 70,000 people and wounds another 70,000, completely destroying five square miles of the city.

August 9, 1945 – A second B-29 drops a 10,000-pound plutonium bomb nicknamed “Fat Man”, on the Japanese city of Nagasaki, killing 40,000 people and wounding 60,000.

1945-1946 – At the end of World War II, US leaders learned of Nazi plans to develop an ICBM that would have been aimed at New York City.

March 4, 1946 – Projects Thumper and Wizard are initiated by the Army Air Force to develop anti-missile defenses.

August 29, 1949 – The Soviet Union detonates its first atomic device

1955 – Using an analog computer, Bell Telephone Laboratories completes 50,000 simulated intercepts of ballistic missile targets. These simulations indicate that it is possible to hit a missile with another missile. Up to this point, a number of scientists said that it was impossible to intercept missiles and likened such a concept to ‘hitting a bullet with another bullet.’ 

October 4, 1957 – The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the world’s first satellite; the launch technology provides the basis for long-range ballistic missile development. 

January 16, 1958 – The US Army, which had been working on the Nike-Zeus anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system since 1955, is designated lead service for the development of a ballistic missile defense.

March 4, 1961 – The Soviet Union reportedly completes the first interception and destruction of a target missile by an ABM missile.

December 22, 1962 – After two promising intercept tests, the Nike-Zeus ABM system is replaced by the Nike-X program, which employs two types of nuclear-tipped interceptors and the recently-developed phased array radar.

1964 - The USSR begins the development the ABM defense system around Moscow. The Americans call this system Galosh. The second similar system is deployed along the USSR boundaries. In the USA it receives a code name Tallinn.

November 10, 1966 – Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara publicly confirms that the Soviet Union is deploying its Galosh anti-ballistic missile system to defend Moscow.

China conducts the first test of a nuclear-tipped ballistic missile.

June 23, 1967 – At the Glassboro summit, President Lyndon Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara attempt with no success to convince Soviet Premier Alexei N. Kosygin that the Soviets should abandon their effort to deploy missile defenses as the US would be compelled to increase the number of warheads in its ICBM arsenal to overwhelm any defenses.

September 18, 1967 – The Pentagon announces the decision to deploy the successor to the Nike-X system, the two-layer Sentinel ABM system, consisting of the nuclear tipped long range Spartan interceptor and the short-range Sprint. This system is designed to defend major cities against a limited number of rudimentary ICBMs similar to those in China’s arsenal.

February 6, 1969 – The Nixon Administration halts Sentinel deployment pending a full review of US strategic programs.

March 14, 1969 – President Nixon announces resumption of the deployment of the ABM system, renamed Safeguard, primarily focusing on ICBM site defense.

August 1969 – The Senate narrowly votes to deploy the Safeguard system, with Vice President Spiro Agnew casting the tie-breaking vote.

May 26, 1972 – President Nixon and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the ABM Treaty that prohibits a nationwide missile defense but allows each country two ABM installations of 100 interceptors at each location.

July 3, 1974 – The ABM Treaty is amended to permit only one ABM installation for each country. 

October 1, 1975 – The North Dakota Safeguard ABM site becomes operational.

October 2, 1975 – The House of Representatives votes to close the North Dakota site because the new Soviet multiple independent reentry vehicles (MIRV) would easily overwhelm Safeguard. Vulnerability to direct attack, and technical problems such as radar blinding by electromagnetic pulse from exploding nuclear warheads, made the system unreliable, and even threatened Minuteman forces it was assigned to protect. 

November 18, 1975 – The Senate votes to terminate Safeguard.

1978 – The Safeguard system is terminated completely.

1982 – The USA fails to conduct a test of a next prototype of an ABM system.

March 23, 1983 – President Ronald Reagan delivers a national television address in which he calls for research into defenses that would make “nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete.”

March 24, 1983 – Opponents in Congress label President Reagan’s vision of a space-based ABM system “Star Wars.”

March 25, 1983 – The ‘Star Wars’ policy announced by Reagan two days earlier is formalized in National Security Decision Directive 85.

October 1983 – The Fletcher Report outlines two agendas and schedules for the development and deployment of an ABM system. The favored program was to be technologically constrained and consist of five basic research areas: Systems; Surveillance Acquisition, Tracking and Kill Assessment; Directed Energy Weapons; Kinetic Energy Weapons; and Supporting Technologies (Survivability, Lethality, Space Power, Space Logistics; Communications, Computers, and Software).

January 6, 1984 – Presidential National Security Decision Directive 119 establishes the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to explore the possibility of developing an ABM system. The initiative was to be guided by the technology schedule developed in the Fletcher Report.

June 10, 1984 – Following two partially-successful tests, the Army’s hit-to-kill interceptor successfully intercepts a target missile.

October 11-12, 1986 – President Reagan refuses to agree to limitations on the Strategic Defense Initiative proposed by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev.

May 13, 1987 – A legal review of the 1972 ABM Treaty concludes that the Treaty does not prevent testing space-based missile defenses, including directed energy weapons. 

January 19, 1988 – Senator Sam Nunn proposes focusing SDI on development of a “limited system for protecting against accidental and unauthorized launches” with a subsequent goal of making the system more comprehensive.

1989 – The fall of the Berlin wall symbolizes the end of the Cold War. Mikhail Gorbachyov begins the process of reduction of arms. The missile threat seams to disappear forever.

June 14, 1989 – Based upon a general review of US national security strategy, President George H. W. Bush decides to continue the SDI program, emphasizing development of space-based boost phase interceptor technologies such as Brilliant Pebbles.

March 15, 1990 – As a component of the Bush Administration’s overall review of national security requirements, Ambassador Henry F. Cooper released his independent analysis of the SDI program. In the report, Cooper endorsed the Brilliant Pebbles defensive scheme and proposed the concept of the system for Global Protection against Limited Strikes (GPALS).

October 5, 1991 - Mikhail Gorbachyov suggests developing a joint Soviet-American ABS system. The collapse of the USSR put an end to the negotiation.

January 29, 1991 – In his State of the Union Address, President Bush announces the integration of SDI into GPALS. The President said, “I have directed that the Strategic Defense Initiative program be refocused on providing protection from limited ballistic missile strikes, whatever their source. Let us pursue a SDI program that can deal with any future threat to the United States, to our forces overseas, and to our friends and allies.” He anticipated that GPALS would afford protection against as many as 200 long range missiles.

April 23, 1991 – During the Gulf War, American military operations relied heavily upon space assets such as global positioning, reconnaissance, and battle management satellites. To this point, General Donald Kutyna, USAF commander of U.S. Space Command, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it is imperative that the U.S. develop the means to defend its space assets and attack enemy assets.

December 5, 1991 – President Bush signs the Missile Defense Act of 1991 (part of H.R. 2100) which mandates the Department of Defense to “develop for deployment by the earliest date allowed by the availability of appropriate technology or by fiscal year 1996 a cost effective, operationally effective, and ABM Treaty-compliant anti-ballistic missile system…designed to protect the United States against limited Ballistic missile threats, including accidental or unauthorized launches or Third World attacks.”

May 1993 – Secretary of Defense Les Aspin renames the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and reorients its priorities to developing theater missile defenses.

November, 1995 – A National Intelligence Estimate (NIE 95-19) reports that “no country, other than the major declared nuclear powers, will develop or otherwise acquire a ballistic missile in the next 15 years that could threaten the contiguous 48 states or Canada.”

April 1996 – The Clinton Administration institutes a “3+3” national missile defense plan which entails three years for development and, if warranted, three more years to deploy a system.

1997 – The USA and Russian presidents come to an agreement about ABM systems. According to it, both parties are permitted to develop limited ABM systems on conditions that these systems won’t pose any threat to the nuclear powers of an opposing side.

October 1, 1997 – The U.S. Army establishes its Space and Missile Defense Command, which was to be a component of the national missile defense initiative.

1998 – Pakistan, Iran and North Korea conduct tests of intermediate-range ballistic missiles. Later both Pakistan and India test nuclear weapons.

March 19, 1998 – Senator Thad Cochran (R-MS) introduces the American Missile Protection Act which establishes “U.S. policy to deploy, as soon as technologically possible, a National Missile Defense system.”

July 15, 1998 – The Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States, established under the 1998 Defense Authorization Act and chaired by Donald Rumsfeld, states with dissent that the ballistic missile threat to the U.S. is real, credible, and could appear sooner than early intelligence predictions.

January 20, 1999 – The Pentagon requests more money for NMD programs, delays the target date for achieving initial operating capability from 2003 to a “more realistic” 2005, and sets a June 2000 date for a deployment decision by the Clinton Administration.

March 16, 1999 – By a vote of 97 to 3 the Senate passes the “The National Missile Defense Act of 1999,” which requires that the United States “deploy as soon as technologically possible an effective National Missile Defense system.”

May 20, 1999 – By a vote of 345 to 71 the House of Representatives approves legislation mandating the deployment of national missile defenses as soon as technically feasible.

June 20, 1999 – President Bill Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin issue a joint communiqué on the ABM Treaty that states: “Proceeding from the fundamental significance of the ABM Treaty for further reductions in strategic offensive arms, and from the need to maintain the strategic balance between the United States of America and the Russian Federation, the Parties reaffirm their commitment to that Treaty, which is a cornerstone of strategic stability, and to continuing efforts to strengthen the Treaty, to enhance its viability and effectiveness in the future.” 

July 23, 1999 – President Clinton signs “The National Missile Defense act of 1999,” which outlines the four criteria Clinton will use in making a final decision on the future deployment of an NMD system: the missile threat against the U.S., the cost of the NMD system, the technological status of the system, and its impact on the ABM Treaty.

September 1999 – The Welch panel, initiated jointly by several Department of Defense programs, concludes that the NMD program remains a “high risk” for failure. In the same month, a new NIE report is released that includes a section entitled “Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States Through 2015,” which states that “during the next 15 years the United States most likely will face ICBM threats from Russia, China, and North Korea, probably from Iran, and possibly from Iraq.”

October 2, 1999 – An Integrated Flight Test (IFT 3), employing elements of the proposed NMD system, attempts to intercept a target missile and is lauded by the Pentagon as an unqualified success. It is later revealed that the kill vehicle initially homed in on the single decoy released by the target.

January 18, 2000 – Integrated Flight Test (IFT 4) fails when the infrared sensor on the kill vehicle malfunctions. The Pentagon, however, declares the test a success due to the amount it "learns".

February 14, 2000 – Philip Coyle, Director of the Pentagon’s Office of Operational Test and Evaluation, tells Congress that “undue pressure has been placed on the [NMD] program” through the imposition of the arbitrary deployment deadline of 2005.

June 2000 – Clinton Administration lawyers conclude that initial work connected with constructing the X-band tracking and discrimination radar on Shemya Island in Alaska will not violate the ABM Treaty.

September 1, 2000 – President Clinton decides not to authorize NMD deployment, citing the underdeveloped status of the technology, the refusal by Russia to agree to modify the ABM to permit deployment of an NMD system, and the reluctance of U.S. allies to endorse NMD unless strategic stability can be assured through a modified ABM Treaty.

December 28, 2000 – The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization announces the award of a six-year, $6 billion cost-plus-award-fee contract to Boeing for further NMD work.

2001 – Russia suggests developing a mobile international ABM system on the basis of Russian technologies.

March 9, 2001 – The Defense Department issued a report, signed by Philip Coyle, stating that the sea-based component of the NMD system will not be operational until 2006 at the earliest.

May 1, 2001 – President George W. Bush delivers his “missile defense speech” at the National Defense University. In making a case for a national missile defense program, Bush stresses that the country’s strategic framework must move away from an arrangement of massive retaliation and mutually assured destruction.

May 14, 2001 – The Pentagon restructures the NMD architecture into a layered defensive arrangement that will attempt to intercept an incoming ICBM at the three primary stages of its flight: boost phase, midcourse, and terminal. Previously, NMD had focused almost exclusively upon the terminal phase.

June 27, 2001 – The Air Force says that the Airborne Laser (ABL) program will not be completed until 2010, three years behind schedule. Funding shortfalls were cited as the cause of the delay.

June 27, 2001 – An internal Pentagon report authored by Philip Coyle concluded that none of the NMD systems are mature enough to allow adequate performance evaluation. The report also stated that the NMD testing to date had been overly rehearsed and unrealistic.

July 14, 2001 – The Pentagon succeeded for the second time in four tries in intercepting a test missile with the developing NMD system. The test was conducted using a Minuteman missile launched over the Pacific and an interceptor launched from a base in California.

July 17, 2001 – Robert Snyder, executive director of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, announced that the Pentagon plans to test a space-based hit-to-kill system with design similar to the Brilliant Pebbles defensive system.

July 30, 2001 – Pentagon officials admit that a homing beacon was used to help guide the interceptor to its target in the July 14 NMD test. The Pentagon claims that the beacon was necessary to compensate for the absence of guidance radars not yet in operation.

September 11, 2001 – Four U.S. commercial airliners are hijacked within minutes of each other. Two planes are flown into the World Trade Center towers (one plane into each tower), one plane crashes into the Pentagon, and one plane crashes in rural Pennsylvania. The Trade Center towers collapse shortly after being struck. Close to 4,000 people are presumed dead. The event, the worst terrorist attack upon the United States in history, fundamentally reorients U.S. defensive and military strategies.

November 12-14, 2001 – Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin meet in Washington and Crawford, TX to discuss a renegotiation of the 1972 ABM Treaty to allow for the development of a U.S. NMD system.  The two Presidents also discuss making deep cuts in strategic nuclear arsenals.  Despite the optimism of reaching an historic agreement that surrounded the talks, no deal was codified with a written treaty.

October 2001-January 2002 – Ground testing phase of the Airborne Laser system

February 12, 2002 – First flight of the Boeing 747 complete with mounted Airborne Laser system.

2003 – The UK and Denmark agree to modernize USA reconnaissance and ABM systems situated on their territories

2005 – Target date for the deployment of the Expanded Capability 1 system with 100 interceptors. The addition of an expanded Ballistic Missile Command, Control, and Communications package, together with the 100 ground based interceptors to be deployed by this year, would “convert” the Expanded C-1 system to the Capability 2 system.

2006 – Iran conducts a series of tests of new models of ballistic missiles.

2007 – Initial Airborne Laser operating capability of three aircraft.

2009 – Deployment of full compliment of seven Airborne Laser-equipped aircraft.

2011 – Deployment of the Capability 3 system with 125 interceptors at each of two sites in Alaska and North Dakota, three command centers, five communications relay stations, six early warning radars and nine high resolution UHF or X-band radars, and 29 satellites of Space Based Infrared both High and Low.

[31(http://www.basicint.org/nuclear/NMD/main.htm)]

Database of National and International Organizations that Monitor Possible Military Activities in Space

The Acronym Institute for Disarmament Diplomacy

The Acronym Institute was legally established in London, UK, in September 1997.

The Acronym Institute works with policy makers and non-governmental organizations “to promote non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament by disseminating information and maximizing negotiating opportunities”. It promotes constructive dialogue and alternative approaches to the critical issues of the day. [32(http://www.acronym.org.uk/space/index.htm)]

The Arms Control Association (ACA)

The Arms Control Association, founded in 1971, is “a national nonpartisan membership organization dedicated to promoting public understanding of and support for effective arms control policies. Through its public education and media programs and its magazine, Arms Control Today (ACT), ACA provides policy-makers, the press and the interested public with authoritative information, analysis and commentary on arms control proposals, negotiations and agreements, and related national security issues”. In a broad spectrum of issues, the problem of space security occupies a highly important place in the work of the association. [33(http://www.armscontrol.org/about/)]

The Belfer Center

for Science and International Affairs (BCSIA)

The Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs aims at research, teaching, and training in international security affairs, environmental and resource issues, and science and technology policy. The Center’s mission is “to provide leadership in advancing policy-relevant knowledge about the most important challenges of international security and other critical issues where science, technology, environmental policy, and international affairs intersect”. In order to complete its mission, the centre tries to investigate the critical issues of security (including space security) involving different specialists such as social scientists, natural scientists, technologists, and practitioners with experience in government, diplomacy, the military, and business. [34(http://bcsia.ksg.harvard.edu/)]

The Australian Space Research Institute (ASRI)

The Australian Space Research Institute is a non-profit organization run entirely by volunteers. Most of the work at ASRI is done in collaboration with Australian universities such as the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Queensland University of Technology and the University of Technology, Sydney. As of 2006, ASRI is developing a vision for the future of Australia's space community, including industry. The ASRI was created to provide opportunities for space-related industry and technology development for the Australian technical community. [35(http://www.asri.org.au/)]

Center for Defense Information, Washington, DC (CDI)

Since 1972, this centre has been analyzing “various components of U.S. national security, international security and defense policy”. In other words, the staff works on a wide range of burning issues of the modern world, such as “nuclear weapons, space security, missile defense, small arms and military transformation”.

The work of the centre involves promotion of discussions and debate on security issues, publication of numerous books and monographs, and carrying out different conferences.

[36(http://www.cdi.org/about/index.cfm)]

Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS),

Monterey Institute

The Center for Nonproliferation Studies, the largest nongovernmental U.S. organization devoted exclusively to research and training on nonproliferation issues, “strives to combat the spread of weapons of mass destruction by training the next generation of nonproliferation specialists and disseminating timely information and analysis.” Nowadays, one of the directions of its work is space security.

The center trains graduate students, publishes on-line and print resources, creates seminars and on-line tutorials, holds conferences on the problems of WMD nonproliferation and space security. [37(http://cns.miis.edu/cns/index.htm.)]

Eisenhower Institute, Washington, DC

The Eisenhower Institute is a nonpartisan, non-profit organization, which seeks to “prepare the successor generations to perfect the promise of the nation through engagement in distinctive programs of leadership and public policy.” It’s created to encourage scholars, policy makers, students, and citizens to focus their attention on global issues of the mankind, to support different associations of concerned scientists and explorers in order to foster in a new generation a more responsible attitude towards space security.

[38(http://www.eisenhowerinstitute.org/about/mission.htm)]

Federation of American Scientists (FAS)

The Federation of American Scientists was formed in 1945 by atomic scientists from the Manhattan Project. Nowadays FAS addresses a broad spectrum of issues in carrying out its mission to promote humanitarian uses of science and technology. [39(http://www.fas.org/static/about.jsp)]

Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies (IDDS)

The Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies is “an independent, non-profit center dedicated to research, alternative policy studies, and public education on ways to reduce the risk of war, minimize military spending, and foster democratic institutions. … IDDS conducts basic research to develop safer, wiser security policies and to help build a citizenry that is informed and active in shaping public policy on matters of war and peace, arms and disarmament.” [40(http://www.idds.org/)]

People against Weapons in Space (PAWS)

People against Weapons in Space is a Toronto-based group which came together in June 2003. The organization focuses its attention on the large range of issues concerning space weaponization. [41(http://www.pawscanada.ca/)]

Pugwash Conferences

“The purpose of the Pugwash Conferences is to bring together influential scholars and public figures concerned with reducing the danger of armed conflict and seeking cooperative solutions for global problems such as WMD nonproliferation, space security and many others. Pugwash participants exchange views and explore alternative approaches to arms control”. [42(http://www.pugwash.org/about.htm)]

Science for Peace

Science for Peace is a charitable Canadian-based organization of natural scientists, engineers, social scientists and scholars in the humanities who are concerned about peace, justice and making an environmentally sustainable future.

Peace in Outer Space is the Science for Peace group which is actively engaged in opposing the weaponisation of space. [43(http://scienceforpeace.sa.utoronto.ca/)]

Space Policy Institute, George Washington University (GW)

The George Washington University is “one of the world's leading centers for research, graduate study, and informed discussion related to issues of science, technology, and public policy. … The Institute conducts research on space policy issues, organizes seminars, symposia, and conferences on various topics, and offers graduate courses on space policy. … The Space Policy Institute focuses its activities on policy issues related to the space efforts of the United States and cooperative and competitive interactions in space between the United States and other countries. The Institute provides a setting in which scholars, policy analysts, practitioners, and students can work together to examine and evaluate options for the future in space.” [44(http://www.gwu.edu/~spi/)]

Stimson Center, Washington, DC

“Founded in 1989, the Henry L. Stimson Center is a nonprofit, nonpartisan institution devoted to enhancing international peace and security through a unique combination of rigorous analysis and outreach. The Stimson Center's work is focused on three priorities that are essential to global security: strengthening institutions for international peace and security, building regional security, and reducing threats of weapons of mass destruction.” The centre tries to provide policy alternatives, to solve global issues and to illuminate complex challenges of the day in order to create “a more peaceful and secure world”. [45(http://www.stimson.org/about/?SN=AB200111059)]

Space Generation Advisory Council

The Space Generation Advisory Council in support of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications is a non-governmental organization which "aims to bring the views of students and young space professionals to the United Nations, Space Agencies and other organizations". [46(http://www.spacegeneration.org/)]

Union of Concerned Scientists

The Union of Concerned Scientists is “the leading science-based nonprofit working for a healthy environment and a safer world”. UCS provides an independent scientific analysis of burning issues of the day including the problem of military uses of space. [47(http://www.ucsusa.org/ucs/about/)]

U.S. National Reconnaissance Organization (NRO)

The NRO “designs, builds and operates the nation's reconnaissance satellites. As part of the 16-member Intelligence Community, the NRO plays a primary role in achieving information superiority for the U. S. Government and Armed Forces”. [48(http://www.nro.gov/index.html)]

U.S. Missile Defense Agency

The Missile Defense Agency's mission is an U.S. organization which was created “to develop, test and prepare for deployment a missile defense system”.

[49(http://www.mda.mil/mdalink/html/aboutus.html)]

UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is an international organization which was set up in 1959 “to review the scope of international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space,… to encourage continued research and the dissemination of information on outer space matters, and to study legal problems arising from the exploration of outer space”.

[50(http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/COPUOS/copuos.html)]

UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)

The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research— an autonomous institute within the United Nations — “conducts research on disarmament and security with the aim of assisting the international community in their disarmament thinking, decisions and efforts. Through its research projects, publications, small meetings and expert networks, UNIDIR promotes creative thinking and dialogue on the disarmament and security challenges of today and of tomorrow.” One of its fields of investigation and research is space security including the problems of space weaponization and militarization. [51(http://www.unidir.org/html/en/about.html)]

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs is “the United Nations office responsible for promoting international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space”.

Implemented by UNOOSA, the United Nations Programme on Space Applications (PSA) is aimed at the improvement of the use of space science and technology for the economic and social development of all nations, in particular developing countries. Under the Programme, the Office conducts training courses, workshops, seminars and other activities. UNOOSA also maintains the Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space, distributes books and publications on the issues and supports international conferences.

[52(http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/index.html)]

Conclusion

“Everybody is Responsible!”

The more I work at the project the more obvious it becomes to me that it is just the time for focusing our attention on the problems of space security. I think that nowadays the challenge of preventing space weaponization deserves our best global efforts.

It’s an open secret that in the middle of the past century space exploration was one of the means of showing the dominance of one nation, its ideology and way of life over the other. Nowadays it seems impossible to me that any country in the world would have the right to use space for military purposes, and thus, to threaten other nations by research and creation of innovative and powerful space weapons.

Conscious people of the present feel the acute need for a spiritual and moral revolution in the minds of the present and future leaders as well as in the ordinary people in the whole. Our today’s society needs a coup that evokes the human power for good and brings the understanding that nobody can justify expanding military space-based arsenals by the fear of loss of power and ascendancy. Nowadays we’ve lost the ability for peaceful adjustment of world problems, for simply talking with each other. Of course, it’s much easier to reach goals simply threatening other nations by military power. But, I believe, it isn’t right. I think nations should seek agreement with each other by means of negotiations. They are to settle conflicts and problems peacefully. Otherwise, egocentric, colliding with one another, strivings of each nation will inevitably lead humanity to the brink of disaster.

We can’t leave our planet in danger of injudicious application of space technologies.

Everybody is responsible for space security and nonproliferation of space-based weapons of mass destruction.

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36. http://www.cdi.org/about/index.cfm

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38. http://www.eisenhowerinstitute.org/about/mission.htm

39. http://www.fas.org/static/about.jsp

40. http://www.idds.org/

41.http://www.pawscanada.ca/

42. http://www.pugwash.org/about.htm

43. http://scienceforpeace.sa.utoronto.ca/

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