Critical Issues Forum - Sarov Russia

Sarov

Nizhni Novgorod Region

Gymnazia № 2

The topic of project:

“Outer Space”: Next Frontier for Proliferation or Forum for Cooperation?

Student: Teacher:

Kirill Kovaldov Tatiana Satyukova

Grade 10

Gymnasia # 2

2007

Benchmark II.

In Benchmark II we are going to research deeper into people’s interactions in space and dwell on people’s approaches to controlling the use of space.

From competition

to partnership and cooperation.

www.airshow.ru

In Benchmark I I’ve already mentioned that people need space. New territories and resources are jealously kept by Space and humanity needs all of this. Besides, as the exploration of space extends, we satisfy our natural curiosity. But what is ‘curiosity’ for modern politicians and businessmen? They need reports and certain facts. I’ll try to innumerate them. I think first of all we should address to the national defense. There are a lot of benefits to national defense.

The Moon, Mars and asteroids represent the new military high ground of space. China and the European Union, the US and Russia have plans to establish their presence there. Each country needs to be able to defend its orbital assets. Earth has had some close calls with asteroids. Nuclear devices can be used to aim them at it’s surface. There are also some spiritual benefits (for people believing in God). When we do space exploration, we are studying the creator's handiwork. They say that on the Apollo 15 Moon Mission, Astronaut Jim Irwin stated that he could feel the influence of God there. Ancient Man recognized the hand of the creator in the regular motions of the Moon and Planets. The telescope brought out these wonders in greater detail. Unmanned space probes revealed even greater glory. Watching astronauts walk on the Moon, brought us closer to the experience. Future advancements in space transportation will make it possible for average citizens to tour the solar system. Being inspired by the wonders of God's creations, is worth infinitely more than the money spent to explore it.

People also need a Final Frontier. When Queen Elizabeth, of England, pledged her country's wealth on settling the new world, her country became a superpower for more than 400 years. China, in 1433, had discovered the Americas, started to colonize them it, and then gave up, because they wanted to focus on problems at home. They lost everything. We need the exploration and settlement of the space frontier to remain a robust, viable civilization. The Space Program is part of the solution to unemployment. Increased space funding would directly create hundreds of thousands of new jobs.

The whole Moon has yet to be explored. Where there is heavy cratering, there should be the same natural resources found in asteroids and meteorites. There should be a considerable quantity of high grade iron ore. Using weightless space manufacturing techniques, steel 4 four times stronger than that made on Earth could be created. In lesser amounts, other natural resources include titanium, gold, silver, platinum, and many other elements. Platinum mining could be worthwhile with current space transportation costs. Construction in outer space, using outer space resources, will dramatically bring down the cost of building space settlements and factories. Solar Energy could be harvested 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and beamed safely down to collectors on Earth. Much of medical technology and industrial processes have benefited from the Space Program. A commonly quoted figure is that the benefits are worth 7 seven times the cost. Finally, tens of thousands of students bettered their education after being inspired by the Apollo Moon Program. Many of these people dreamed of becoming astronauts or workers on space development.

We cannot afford not to go to the Moon, Mars, and the solar system.

Nations that have space programs:

Nation	Programs	Use
United States	Man- made satellites Manned spaceflight Planet & moon probes Lunar landings Space stations Reusable shuttle Space telescope	Military and civilian
Soviet Union/Russia	Man- made satellites Manned spaceflight Planet & moon probes Space station	Military and civilian
European Space	Agency (ESA) Man- made satellites Launch vehicles Space telescope Space station Astronaut program Comet fly-by	Military and civilian
Canada	Man- made satellites Canadarm (robotic arm) Space station Astronaut program	Military and civilian
China	Man- made satellites Launch vehicles Astronaut program Manned spaceflight	Military and civilian
Germany	European Space Agency (ESA) Deep Space 1 scientific team Development of reusable space plane Sponsorship of 1985 Shuttle mission	Military and civilian
India	Man- made satellites Launch vehicles	Military and civilian
Italy European Space	Agency (ESA) Man- made satellites Cassini Mission to Saturn Tethered satellite system	Civilian
Japan	Man- made satellites Launch vehicles Astronaut program Japanese Experiment module for ISS	Civilian
Netherlands European Space	Agency (ESA) European Robotic Arm (ERA) Man- made satellites	Military and civilian

As we can see almost all programs are of a dual use. But that really makes a sense. If refer back to the world’s history we’ll see that Alfred Nobel invented dynamite to support mining industry but later this invention would be used as a dreadful weapon.

While the USA and Russia have made the largest contributions to the space surveillance capabilities to date, other countries, as we see, are increasing their capabilities. China has a tracking, telemetry and communications system, including large phased array radars, to monitor its national satellites and spacecraft.

Japan has built two new facilities – an optical site and large phased array radar – for space surveillance, primarily for asteroid detection as well as monitoring of debris and satellites. Canada has experimented with a satellite tracking system, and is currently engaged in research and development of space-based surveillance technology, including a micro-satellite based option. France is pursuing debris monitoring in GEO through two new projects, incorporating advanced optical telescope technology, etc.

So, if space is of such importance to us why don’t we go and explore it as fast as we can? This kind of question (an irrelevant kind, I should admit) can be asked only by a man who is a total stranger to this topic. To show how difficult it is to explore space I’ll contrast terrestrial and space exploration.

For me it is clear that the terrestrial exploration costs a way cheaper than space exploration. No words needed. Just try to compare a space shuttle and a dredge (or several hundred dredges, it doesn’t make any difference). Secondly, the level of qualification of employees distinguishes greatly. To run a rocket you need more than lifting several levers, as a dredge drive needs. Also, when we send a ‘shuttle’ to space there is a great chance of not landing it back on the Earth. Even if the technology of controlling a shuttle during a flight is at the corresponding level, still we send human beings on appointment to the Unknown and we should expect the worst.

The Space Race

The Space Race was an informal competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted roughly from 1957 to 1975. It involved the parallel efforts by each of those countries to explore outer space with artificial satellites, to send humans into space, and to land people on the Moon.

Though its roots lie in early rocket technology and in the international tensions following World War II, the Space Race effectively began after the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957. The term originated as an analogy to the arms race. The Space Race became an important part of the cultural, technological, and ideological rivalry between the USSR and the United States during the Cold War. Space technology became a particularly important arena in this conflict, both because of its potential military applications and due to the morale-boosting psychological benefits.

Early military influences

Rockets have interested scientists and amateurs for centuries. The Chinese used them as weapons as early as the 11th century, and simple but inaccurate iron rockets were common ship and land based weapons by the 19th century. Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) theorized in the 1880s on multi-stage, liquid fuel rockets which might reach space and established the basics of rocket science; his 'Rocket Equation', which determines flight velocity, is still used in the design of modern rockets today. Tsiolkovsky also wrote the first theoretical description of a man-made satellite. However, not until 1926 did the American Robert Goddard design a practical liquid fuel rocket.

Goddard performed his work on rocketry in general obscurity, as the scientific community, the public, and even The New York Times scoffed at him. It took war to catapult rocketry to notoriety. This proved a harbinger for the future, as any "space race" would become inextricably linked to military ambitions of the nations involved, despite its mostly scientific character and peaceful rhetoric. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

German contributions

In the mid-1920s, German scientists began experimenting with rockets powered by liquid propellants that were capable of reaching relatively high altitudes and distances. In 1932, the Reichswehr, predecessor of the Wehrmacht, took an interest in rocketry for long-range artillery fire. Wernher von Braun, an aspiring rocket scientist, joined the effort and developed such weapons for Nazi Germany's use in World War II. Von Braun borrowed heavily from Robert Goddard's original research, studying and improving on Goddard's rockets.

The German A-4 Rocket, launched in 1942, became the first such projectile to reach space. In 1943, Germany began production of its successor, the V-2 rocket, with a range of 300 km (185 miles) and carrying a 1000 kg (2200 lb) warhead. The Wehrmacht fired thousands of V-2s at Allied nations, causing massive damage and loss of life. However, more laborers were killed in the production of V2s than were killed by them in attacks.

As World War II drew to a close, Soviet, British, and American military and scientific crews raced to capture technology and trained personnel from the German rocket program installation at Peenemünde. The USSR and Britain had some success, but the United States arguably benefited most, taking a large number of German rocket scientists – many of them members of the Nazi Party, including von Braun – from Germany to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip. American scientists adapted the German rockets – for use against hostile nations; and other uses. Post-war scientists, including von Braun, turned to rockets to study high-altitude conditions of temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, cosmic rays, and other topics.

Cold War roots

After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became locked in a bitter Cold War of espionage and propaganda. Space exploration and satellite technology could feed into the cold war on both fronts. Satellite-borne equipment could spy on other countries, while space-faring accomplishments could serve as propaganda to tout a country's scientific prowess and military potential. The same rockets that might send a human into orbit or hit a specific spot on the Moon could send an atom bomb to a specific enemy city. Much of the technological development required for space travel applied equally well to wartime rockets such as Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Along with other aspects of the arms race, progress in space appeared as an indicator of technological and economic prowess, demonstrating the superiority of the ideology of that country. Space research had a dual purpose: it could serve peaceful ends, but could also contribute to military goals.

The two superpowers each worked to gain an edge in space research, neither knowing who might make a breakthrough first. They had each laid the groundwork for a race to space, and awaited only the starter's gun. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

Timeline of the Space Race:

· On 4 October 1957, the USSR successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, and the Space Race began.

· The first American communications satellite, Project SCORE, launched on December 18, 1958, relayed a Christmas message from President Eisenhower to the world.

· The U.S. launched the first geosynchronous satellite, Syncom-2, on July 26, 1963. The success of this class of satellite meant that a simple satellite dish no longer needed to track the orbit of the satellite, as that orbit remained geostationary. Henceforth ordinary citizens could use satellite-mediated communications transmissions for television broadcasts, after a one-time setup.

· The first living creature sent into orbit, the dog Laika, traveled in the USSR's Sputnik 2 in 1957. However, technology did not exist at the time to recover Laika after her flight. She died of stress and overheating soon after reaching space. In 1960 Russian space dogs Belka and Strelka orbited the earth and successfully returned.

· The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space when he entered orbit in Russia's Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, a day now celebrated as a holiday in Russia and in many other countries.

· 23 days later, on mission Freedom 7, Alan Shepard first entered sub-orbital space for the U.S. John Glenn, in Friendship 7, became the first American to successfully orbit Earth, completing three orbits on February 20, 1962.

· The first dual-manned flights also originated in the USSR, August 11 - 15, 1962. Soviet Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on June 16, 1963 in Vostok 6.

· Aleksei Leonov, from Voskhod 2, launched by the USSR on March 18, 1965, carried out the first spacewalk. This mission nearly ended in disaster; Leonov almost failed to return to the capsule and, due to a poor retrorocket fire, the ship landed 1000 miles (1600 km) off target.

· The Soviet Union first sent planetary probes to both Venus and Mars in 1960. The first spacecraft to successfully fly by Venus, the U.S.'s Mariner 2, did so on December 14, 1962. It sent back surprising data on the high surface temperature and air density of Venus.

· The USSR's Venera 7, launched in 1971, became the first craft to land on Venus. Venera 9 then transmitted the first pictures from the surface of another planet.

· The US launched Mariner 10, which flew by Venus on its way to Mercury, in 1974. It became the first, and so far the only, spacecraft to fly by Mercury.

· The U.S also sent Pioneer 10 on a successful flyby of Jupiter in 1973. This foreshadowed the first flyby of Saturn in 1979 with Pioneer 11, and the first and only flybys of Uranus and Neptune with Voyager 2.

Even if competition between the Soviet Union and the US is over, the Space race isn’t gone. Each country claiming for the right to roam the space simultaneously enters the Space race. To prove that I’ve done some case studies of the space programs of two countries: China and India.

China:

http://www.tuvy.com/chinese/info/flag

The scope of mankind's activities has experienced expansion from land to ocean, from ocean to atmosphere, and from atmosphere to outer space. Space technology, which emerged in the 1950s, opened up a new era of man's exploration of outer space. Having developed rapidly for about half a century, mankind's space activities have scored remarkable achievements, greatly promoted the development of social productivity and progress, and produced profound and far-reaching effects. Space technology has turned out to be one field of high technology that exerts the most profound influence on modern society. The continuous development and application of space technology has become an important endeavor in the modernization drive of countries all over the world.

The Chinese nation created a glorious civilization in the early stage of mankind's history. The gunpowder "rocket" invented by ancient Chinese was the embryo of modern space rockets. After the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, China carried out space activities on its own, and succeeded in developing and launching its first man-made satellite in 1970. China has made eye-catching achievements, and now ranks among the world's most advanced countries in some important fields of space technology.

In the 21st century, China will continue to promote the development of its space industry in the light of its national situation, and make due contributions to the peaceful use of outer space, and to the civilization and progress of mankind.

At the turn of the century, it is of significance to give a brief introduction to the aims and principles, present situation, future development and international cooperation concerning China’s space activities.

Since its birth in 1956, China's space program has gone through several important stages of development: arduous pioneering, overall development in all related fields, reform and revitalization, and international cooperation. Now it has reached a considerable scale and level. A comprehensive system of research, design, production and testing has been formed. Space centers capable of launching satellites of various types and manned spacecraft as well as a Telemetry Tracking and Command network consisting of ground stations across the country and tracking and telemetry ships are in place. A number of satellite application systems have been established and have yielded remarkable social and economic benefits. A space science research system of a fairly high level has been set up and many innovative achievements have been made. And a contingent of qualified space scientists and technicians has come to the fore.

China's space industry was developed on the basis of weak infrastructure industries and a relatively backward scientific and technological level, under special national and historical conditions. In the process of carrying out space activities independently, China has opened a road of development unique to its national situation and scored a series of important achievements with relatively small input and within a relatively short span of time. Now, China ranks among the most advanced countries in the world in many important technological fields, such as satellite recovery, multi-satellite launch with a single rocket, rockets with cryogenic fuel, strap-on rockets and launch of geo-stationary satellites. Significant achievements have also been gained in the development and application of remote- sensing satellites and telecommunications satellites, and in manned spacecraft testing and space micro-gravity experiments.

China attaches importance to developing all kinds of application satellites and satellite application technology, and has made great progress in satellite remote-sensing, satellite telecom and satellite navigation. Remote-sensing and telecommunications satellites account for about 71% of the total number of satellites developed and launched by China. These satellites have been widely utilized in all aspects of economy, science and technology, culture, and national defense, and yielded remarkable social and economic returns. Related departments of the state have also made active use of foreign application satellites for application technology studies, with satisfactory results.

INDIA http://images.yandex.ru

After regaining independence in 1947 India focused all its energy in nation building, focused on economic and industrial development fully understanding the key role of science and technology. Indian rocketry was reborn thanks to technological vision of Prime Minster Jawaharlal Nehru. Prof Vikram Sarabhai took the challenge of realizing this dream. Professor Vikram Sarabhai was an able leader and visionary who gave shape to modern Indian rocketry and space endeavors. As Dr. APJ Kalam said "Many individual with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation, which was finding it difficult to feed its population. Their vision was clear if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it as a mean to display our might".

INCOSPAR (Indian Committee for Space Research) lead by Prof Sarabhai was then part of Tata Institute of Fundamental research (TIFR) (lead by it's director MGK Menon). In 1962 INCOSPAR took the decision to setup Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) at Thumba (Trivandrum also known as Thiruvananthapuram) on the southern tip of India very close to earth's magnetic equator. Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam (now President of Indian Republic) was amongst the initial team of rocket engineer forming the INCOSPAR. The initial team went to America for 6 months training program on sounding rocket launching techniques. Upon launching the first sounding rocket (Nike-Apache) on 21 Nov 1963, Prof Sarabhai shared with his team his dream of an Indian Satellite Launch Vehicle.

The Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) program to develop indigenously developed and fabricated sounding rockets launched the first single-stage Rohini (RH-75) rocket (32 Kg rocket with 7 Kg payload to ~10 Km altitude) in 1967, followed by a two-stage Rohini rocket (100 kg payload to over 320 Km altitude). Apart from Indian payload, sounding rockets from many other countries (including USA, Russia, Japan, France and Germany) were also lunched from Thumba, as part of mutual international collaboration. TERLS developed infrastructure for all aspects of rocketry, ranging from rocket design, rocket propellant, rocket motor casting, integration, payload-assembly, testing, evaluation besides building subsystems like payload housing and jettisonable nose cone. Fiber Reinforced Plastics composite materials for nosecone were used in early programs at TERLS.

Recognizing the immense socio-economic benefits of space technology in 1969 full steam go ahead was given for launching satellite launch vehicles and large rockets, Sriharikota situated on the east coast of south India (100 Km north of Chennai) was chosen as Rocket Launch Station (SHAR RLS) for launching satellite launch vehicles and large rockets to leverage from earths rotational velocity from west to east. On 15 August 1969 INCOSPAR was reconstituted and Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was created under Department of Atomic Agency (DEA) to conduct space research and application. Prof Vikram Sarabhai had hand picked a team to realize an Indian Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV). The shoestring budget for R&D and space program forced ISRO to seek participation from civilian industry since its early days. In 1972 the Indian Government set up the Space Commission and entrusted Department of Space (DOS) with responsibility for conducting the country's space activities. While ISRO is main developer of launcher and satellite systems, it is complemented by two separate agencies INSAT (Telecommunications) and IRS (Remote Sensing). All of ISRO's commercial and marketing activities are handled by Antrix Corp. Ltd, which was created on November 1992 by ISRO. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

Bruce Einhorn( a reporter) in his article “Chindia - Cooperation in the space race?” writes:

” Forget for a moment the heated rivalry between China and India. With Hu Jintao now in India, the theme for this week is cooperation. Maybe that's why a top Chinese scientist has told an Indian reporter that the two countries - both of which have plans to send missions to the Moon - should be pooling their resources on a joint effort in space. The Indian Express reporter, Pallava Bagla, interviews Wu Ji, identified as the "chief scientist for the Chinese space science research and Director for the Center for Space Science and Applied Research (CSSAR) in Beijing." According to Bagla, Wu says that India and China should team up in space. "It is not like the Cold War (days), relations between the two countries are getting better and better. We certainly wish to have collaboration with India and we should find more opportunities to talk with the India space agency," Wu tells the newspaper.

Bagla goes on to quote an Indian official, J N Goswami, director of the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, saying that “a joint investigation in science which is well focused and transparent will be helpful.”

No doubt it would be great if the Chinese and Indians could pull this off. It took the Americans and the Russians decades to get to the point where astronauts and cosmonauts were working closely together. Rather than simply staging a 21st-century update of the U.S.-Soviet space race, Asia's emerging powers could show that they've learned from the Westerners' expensive mistakes by fast-forwarding to the era of cooperation. That would allow them to take advantage of talent on both sides and save money that they could use for other types of development. For all their economic growth and hi-tech aspirations, China and India certainly have better ways to spend billions of dollars than on a costly space race.” http://www.indianexpress.com

Space weapons:

As we may learn from history almost all huge political conflicts lead to a full-scale war. To win a war ones country needs top warfare technologies. Nowadays, having top warfare technologies means to have top space technologies.

But space warfare that involves humans being deployed in space to fight each other is not currently practical. No infrastructure or economic interests exist at the moment to warrant the occupation of terrain on other terrestrial bodies within the Solar system, or to occupy orbital trajectories in outer space. The difficulty and cost of sustaining human life in space, especially over long periods of time, may also be a factor.

Yet the most developed ‘space-roaming’ countries apply ‘terrestrial’ warfare technologies in space. For example: kinetic defense systems, laser tracking systems, airborne laser, ultraviolet laser, particle beam weapons etc.

But if we refer to the modern cinema industry we’re doomed to find lot’s of imaginary weapons that were embodied in certain movies such as: Star Wars, Star Trek and The War of the Worlds etc.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Death_Star.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gundam

‘Death Star’ (‘Star Wars’)- ‘RX-78 Gundam’ (anime

a huge station that can easily ‘Gundam Seed’) – large,

destroy the entire planet. walking vehicles control-

led by a human being.

Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space. International lawyers have been unable to agree on a uniform definition of the term "outer space," although most lawyers agree that outer space generally begins at the lowest altitude above sea level at which objects can orbit the Earth, (approximately 100 km). The inception of the field of space law began with the launching in October of 1957 of the world's first satellite, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic's Sputnik. In 1958, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev each asked the United Nations to consider the legal issues associated with space activity. The U.N. subsequently created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ("COPUOS"). COPUOS in turn created two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been the primary forum for discussion and negotiation of international agreements relating to outer space.

International treaties:

Five international treaties have been negotiated and drafted in the COPUOS: the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty"), the 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement"), the 1973 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention"), the 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention"), and the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies ("the Moon Treaty"). The Outer Space Treaty is the most widely-adopted treaty, with 98 parties. The Rescue Agreement, the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention all elaborate on provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. U.N. delegates apparently intended that the Moon Treaty serve as a new comprehensive treaty which would supersede or supplement the Outer Space Treaty, most notably by elaborating upon the Outer Space Treaty's provisions regarding resource appropriation and prohibition of territorial sovereignty. The Moon Treaty has only 12 parties, and many consider it to be a failed treaty due to its limited acceptance.

Consensus:

The COPUOS operates on the basis of consensus, i.e. all committee and subcommittee delegates must agree on treaty language before it can be included in the final version of a treaty, and the committees cannot place new items on their agendas unless all member nations agree. One reason that the U.N. space treaties lack definitions and are unclear in other respects, is because it is easier to achieve consensus when language and terms are vague. In recent years, the COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been unable to achieve consensus on discussion of a new comprehensive space agreement, and it is also unlikely that the Subcommittee will be able to agree to amend the Outer Space Treaty in the foreseeable future. Many spacefaring nations seem to believe that discussing a new space agreement or amendment of the Outer Space Treaty would be futile and time consuming, because entrenched differences regarding resource appropriation, property rights and other issues relating to commercial activity make consensus unlikely.

1998 agreement:

In addition to the international treaties that have been negotiated in the United Nations, the nations participating in the International Space Station have entered into the 1998 Agreement among the Government of Canada, Governments of the Member States of the European Space Agency, the Government of Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station (the "Space Station Agreement"). This Agreement provides, among other things, that NASA is the lead agency in coordinating the member states' contributions to and activities on the space station, and that each nation has jurisdiction over its own module(s). The Agreement also provides for protection of intellectual property and procedures for criminal prosecution. This Agreement may very well serve as a model for future agreements regarding international cooperation in facilities on the Moon and Mars.

National law:

Space law also encompasses national laws, and many countries have passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space Treaty requires parties to authorize and supervise national space activities, including the activities of non-governmental entities such as commercial and non-profit organizations. The Outer Space Treaty also incorporates the U.N. Charter by reference, and requires parties to ensure that activities are conducted in accordance with other forms of international law such as customary international law (the custom and practice of states). The advent of commercial space activities beyond the scope of the satellite communications industry, and the development of many commercial spaceports, is leading many countries to consider how to regulate private space activities. The challenge is to regulate these activities in a manner that does not hinder or preclude investment, while still ensuring that commercial activities comply with international law. The developing nations are concerned that the spacefaring nations will monopolize space resources.

The future of space law:

While this field of the law is still in its infancy, it is in an era of rapid change and development. Arguably the resources of space are infinite, and limited only by our ability to use them in a manner that is fair and equitable to all nations. If commercial space transportation becomes widely available, with substantially lower launch costs, then all countries will be able to directly reap the benefits of space resources. In that situation, it seems likely that consensus will be much easier to achieve with respect to commercial development and human settlement of outer space.

History:

U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower introduced the concept in 1957, in connection with disarmament talks, and the launch of the first Russian space satellite.

Multilateral treaties:

The nuclear test ban treaty of 1963 banned the test of nuclear weapons in outer space.

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (full name: The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies) governs the activities of states in space exploration.

The rescue agreement of 1968 (The Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched into space).

The liability convention of 1972 (the Convention on international liability for damages caused by space objects) deals with damages caused by space objects.

The registration convention of 1976 (the Convention on the registration of objects launched into outer space) covers the registration of objects launched in outer space.

The Moon Treaty of 1984 (the Agreement governing the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies) deals with the activities of states on the moon and other bodies.

The years of the different conventions and agreements indicate when they have entered into force. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law:

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is the only international forum for the development of international space law. Since its inception, the Committee has concluded five international legal instruments and five sets of legal principles governing space-related activities.

The five treaties and agreements are:

The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2222 (XXI)), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications and 27 signatures (as of 1 January 2006);

The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2345 (XXII)), opened for signature on 22 April 1968, entered into force on 3 December 1968, 88 ratifications, 25 signatures, and 1 acceptance of rights and obligations (as of 1 January 2006);

The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2777 (XXVI)), opened for signature on 29 March 1972, entered into force on 1 September 1972, 83 ratifications, 25 signatures, and 3 acceptances of rights and obligations (as of 1 January 2006);

The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 3235 (XXIX)), opened for signature on 14 January 1975, entered into force on 15 September 1976, 46 ratifications, 4 signatures, and 2 acceptances of rights and obligations (as of 1 January 2006);

The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon Agreement", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 34/68), opened for signature on 18 December 1979, entered into force on 11 July 1984, 12 ratifications and 4 signatures (as of 1 January 2006).

The international legal principles in these five treaties provide for non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes. Each of the treaties lays great stress on the notion that the domain of outer space, the activities carried out therein and whatever benefits might accrue therefrom should be devoted to enhancing the well-being of all countries and humankind, and each includes elements elaborating the common idea of promoting international cooperation in outer space activities.

The five sets of legal principles adopted by the United Nations General Assembly provide for the application of international law and promotion of international cooperation and understanding in space activities, the dissemination and exchange of information through transnational direct television broadcasting via satellites and remote satellite observations of Earth and general standards regulating the safe use of nuclear power sources necessary for the exploration and use of outer space.

The five declarations and legal principles are:

The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (General Assembly resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963);

The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (resolution 37/92 of 10 December 1982);

The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (resolution 41/65 of 3 December 1986);

The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (resolution 47/68 of 14 December 1992);

The Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries (resolution 51/122 of 13 December 1996). (http://unoosa.org)

As we can see there are a lot of agreements and treaties that are really useful in holding the full power of one’s country, so it won’t be able do dominate the others and the space exploration will be fair’n square. In my opinion to make this system work more effectively we should solve two problems. Firstly, we should somehow cut to zero the possibility of bribing a member of an expert group of a treaty, so the information about one’s country’s activities (mostly illegal military activities in space or illegal space warfare development) in space will get in one piece to the treaty. And secondly, we should establish highly secured communication lines, so the information concerning ‘different space activities’ won’t be intercepted and changed. Actually the ‘treaties’ system has a lot of minor problems that are to be solved to reach the maximum effectiveness. But despite of treaty’s wealth if the information flows therefrom it’s not much of a good treaty.

The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law, including the following principles:

the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;

outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;

outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;

States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;

the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes;

astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;

States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental activities;

States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects;

States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

We have tried to make a list of known space based defense:

Theater Missile Defense:

· HAWK

· MEADS

· SM-2 Navy Area

· SM-3 (AEGIS)

· Patriot

· THAAD

· Navy Upper Tier

· Airborne Laser

· Boost Phase Intercept

· Boost Phase Intercept ACTD

· Boost Defense Segment (BDS)

· Kinetic Energy Interceptor (KEI)

· Advanced Relay Mirror System (ARMS)

· National Missile Defense

· Ground Based Interceptor

Sensors:

· Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR)

· X-band / Ground Based Radar

· Forward Based X-Band

· Large X-Band Dish

· Sea-Based X-band (SBX) Radar

· Space Based Infrared System

· Space and Missile Tracking System

JLENS:

· Airborne Surveillance Testbed

· Midcourse Sensor Experiment

· DUNDEE

Targets and Decoys:

· Battle Management

· NMD Battle Management, Command and Control (BMC2)

· NMD In-Flight Interceptor Communications System (IFICS)

· Other Programs

Directed Energy Weapons:

· Space-based laser

Early warning satellites carry infrared sensors that detect the heat from a rocket's engines. These satellites are used for monitoring missile launches to insure treaty compliance, as well as providing early warning of missile attack. They can also be used to locate the launch sites of missiles used in combat operations.

The American Satellite Early Warning System (SEWS) consists of five Defense Support Program spacecraft. Three of these provide frontline operational service, with two additional spacecraft available as backups should problems emerge with the primary satellites. At the beginning of 1990 five DSP spacecraft were operational. DSP F-13 and DSP F-12, launched in 1982 and 1984 respectively, were on backup duty, and DSP F-6R launched in 1984, DSP F-5R, launched in 1987, and DSP-I 14, launched in 1989, were the primary operational spacecraft. The second Improved DSP (DSP-I) was launched on Titan 4 on 12 November 1990. The DSP-I satellites, of which spacecraft 14 through 25 were on order in early 1989 with options for 26 through 28 under consideration, will incorporate upgraded sensors and improved resistance to laser attack. Two DSP satellites were used to track Iraqi Scud missile launches. Although the system was slow to provide warning of initial Iraqi test launches in early December, by the end of the year the system had been greatly improved.

The elimination of the anti-missile mission requirement for Booster Surveillance and Tracking System (BSTS) in SDI led to a decision in 1990 to transfer budget authority for this program back to the Air Force, which sought to justify continuation of the program, initially renamed the Advanced Warning System and subsequently termed the Followon Early Warning System (FEWS), on the basis of its improved early warning of missile attack, and enhanced intelligence collection and verification capabilities. The future of this project remains in doubt, since BSTS grew out of the Advanced Warning System which was rejected for deployment in 1983. The greater sensitivity of the FEWS sensors could improve its ability to track third world missiles compared with the current capabilities of DSP early warning satellites.

In the early 1960's the United States began launching a series of satellites known as Vela, dedicated to the detection of nuclear explosions on the Earth and in space. More recently, these dedicated satellites have been replaced by nuclear explosion detection sensors mounted on other spacecraft. The American Navstar navigation satellites, along with weather and early warning satellites, carry several types of sensors to detect the location and yield of nuclear explosions. This Integrated Operational Nuclear Detection System, or IONDS, will relay this information to widely dispersed mobile ground terminals, enabling battle managers to identify which targets were missed by defective missiles or warheads, and to assign further strikes.

On the 8^th of August, 1989, the Space Shuttle Orbiter Columbia deployed what appears to be the first of a new generation of MASINT satellites under the FOREST GREEN program. By early October amateur astronomers had noted that sunlight reflected from this spacecraft was flashing, as though the spacecraft were tumbling out of control. But by mid-November the satellite was observed to have maneuvered to a higher orbit, suggesting that the spacecraft was operational.

The expansion of treaty verification satellite programs has largely been the results of the efforts of Oklahoma Democratic Senator David Boren, Chair of the Senate Intelligence Committee. Under his proposal, as much as $5 billion was programmed for a new system of satellites that would be deployed in the mid-1990's or no later than the 1997-99 timeframe to monitor Soviet laser testing.

The Space Based Wide Area Surveillance System (SB-WASS), with potential NATO and Canadian participation, would be used to track ships and aircraft on a global basis, although there is intense disagreement over the type of sensor that would be used. The Navy favors passive infrared sensors that would track the heat emitted by ships and aircraft, while the Air Force favors an active radar system, which it believes would have a superior all-weather capability. These technical preferences mark a reversal from earlier preferences. Navy interest in space-based radar extended from the Albatross studies of the early 1960's through the Clipper Bow effort of the late 1970's. The Air Force and DARPA spent almost $500 million developing the Teal Ruby infrared system before deciding not to fly it.

The choice is more than one of engineering convenience, since the infrared system could require as few as four satellites for continental air defense or 8 to 10 for global coverage, while the radar system could require anywhere from 8 to 24 massive spacecraft (the weight of which was over 11,000 kilograms), costing from $8 billion up to $20 billion. The Navy is interested primarily in a system to assist with fleet air defense, while the Air Force requirements also extend to strategic air defense, support of forces forward deployed in areas such as the Persian Gulf, as well as drug interdiction. The Navy is seeking a system that will be responsive to tasking by fleet commanders, while the Air Force prefers a system that will be centrally directed by the U.S. Space Command. The services also differ on how the space-based system would complement terrestrial systems, with the Air Force claiming that the space-based system could replace ground-based and airbased radars (such as AWACS), and the Navy seeing the space-based system more as a complement to terrestrial systems.

However, their are serious questions concerning the ability of the SB-WASS to track stealth targets, as well as concerns about the vulnerability of these low-flying satellites to Soviet ASAT attack, and approval of development of this system has been deferred to 1990, with a first test flight anticipated around 1995.

"At the level of non-governmental organizations, there is also quite a bit of work that needs to be done, particularly in regards to influencing and educating the public, which is still poorly informed on space security questions. No major studies, for example, have emerged in recent years on the long-term costs of space weaponization. Given budget realities in the United States, such studies could begin to have a significant impact in chipping away at support for such expensive programs, particularly when the technologies are far from proven. Options—such as using unmanned aerial vehicles to reduce reliance on reconnaissance satellites and the creation of a ready reserve of spares satellites with a quick-launch capability—should be examined and publicized. Their lower costs could be contrasted favorably to those of deploying and maintaining space weapons (both in terms of the systems themselves and in terms of political and strategic costs of weaponizing space over the long term). Finally, the space debris issues needs to receive more public attention both in the United States and internationally. This is something that most people can understand and yet is not part of the current public vocabulary regarding space. The debris issue shows why space is different from other realms (such as the airspace and seas) and uniquely unsuitable for war-fighting." (James Clay Moltz, "Remarks from the Geneva Meeting on Outer Space and Global Security," Geneva, Switzerland, November 26-27, 2002) http://www.ploughshares.ca http://cns.miis.edu

It goes without saying that today the International Space Station (ISS) project is the single largest international effort. Financial and technological resources and experience of a number of countries including the United States, Russia, Canada, Italy, Japan and the European Space Agency (ESA) member states have been pooled to make this project a reality.

The International Space Station program is the next logical step in the progress of space science. Through the efforts of, primarily, Soviet and Russian space science, the feasibility of long-duration missions has been proven, and the major areas of work on the development of in-orbit production facilities have been defined.

www.airshow.ru The ISS project pools the resources, scientific achievements and experience of western countries and Russia, promotes development of national economies and efficient use of space in the interests of the world community, and understanding between the nations.

Construction of the International Space Station is a necessary step in the development of mankind in what regards the utilization of Earth and Solar system resources. The International Space Station draws upon the scientific and technological resources of 16 nations: USA, Canada, Japan, Russia... The completed International Space Station will have a mass of about 1,040,000 pounds. It will measure 356 feet across and 290 feet long, with almost an acre of solar panels to provide electrical power to six state-of-the-art laboratories.

Since 1961, more than 400 human beings have ventured into space. Now abroad the ISS, astronauts are working to improve life on Earth and extend life beyond our home planet.

Completing the International Space Station, explains NASA Administrator Mike Griffin, is an integral part of the Vision for Space Exploration.
"Today," Griffin writes, "NASA is moving forward with a new focus for the manned space program: to go out beyond Earth orbit for purposes of human exploration and scientific discovery. And the International Space Station is now a stepping stone on the way, rather than being the end of the line. On the space station, we will learn how to live and work in space. We will learn how to build hardware that can survive and function for the years required to make the round-trip voyage from Earth to Mars. " www.nasa.gov

European astronauts have flown in space since 1983, and since 1998 the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne has concentrated on training men and women for future ISS missions. The first European to serve a tour of duty on the ISS, Umberto Guidoni, went on mission to the ISS in April 2001.

European Participation
Participating States

www.esa.int

Europe, through ESA, is one of the five partners (NASA, Russian Federal Space Agency, ESA, JAXA, CSA) contributing to the development of the ISS.

European Participation www.esa.int

Working together representatives from different countries carry experiments for the benefit of the mankind. I have no doubt that the International Space Station promote cooperation in space and lessen competition among nations.

Though space is not owned by anybody or any nation it does require security.

One example:

Trash from China's satellite-killing missile test has spread widely in space, creating a debris cloud that could jeopardize spy satellites and commercial imagery satellites in low orbits around Earth. Even the manned International Space Station is vulnerable to being hit by some of the thousands of pieces of trash created when China slammed a ground-based medium-range ballistic missile into an aging Chinese weather satellite about 537 miles (865 km) above Earth on the 11^th of January 2007. A huge number of satellites have been put in harm's way, as more than 120 satellites were orbiting in the area. It could take decades for debris from the Chinese weather satellite to fall out of orbit.

"The test created a lot of debris. It definitely raises the possibility that something is going to be hit, including the space station," Peter Hays, a senior adviser to the Pentagon's National Security Space Office, told Reuters. www.defencetalk.com

Collonel Patrick Rayermann, chief of the U.S. Army's Space and Missile Defense Division, told Reuters the Chinese test had re-energized discussions about the need for a treaty or certain rules for actions taken by space-faring countries. "What anybody does in space has ramifications for all users in space," Rayermann said.

In the nearly fifty years since the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, there has been a steady growth in the number of states that have launched satellites into orbit. Growing even faster is the number of countries that have deployed satellites launched by others. Currently, satellites serve a multitude of civilian and military functions, from facilitating communications and weather forecasting to providing highly accurate navigational information, and many nations envision making future investments in satellites for such uses.

In one country’s military, for example, there is also a growing interest in broadening the military uses of space to include basing weapons in space, as well as in developing means to attack the satellites of other nations and to protect one country’s satellites from attack. While space has long been home to military systems such as observation, communication, and navigation satellites, these new missions would be a departure from long-held norms.

As we know, the Outer Space Treaty does not prohibit weapons other than weapons of mass destruction, and people have been trying to fill that gap ever since. This means in practice that nuclear weapons mounted on missiles may transit space and that weapons other than nuclear, chemical or biological weapons may be placed in space orbit and used to attack targets in space or on earth. Countries could also create armed military bases on orbiting satellites. There is no longer any restriction on ground-, sea-, air- or space-based anti-missile weapons, no agreement limiting anti-satellite weapons was ever reached.

“Space is an increasingly important international arena, due to growing civilian and military dependence on space-based assets. Commercial space technologies have now created global networks that are critical to civilian navigation, remote sensing, weather forecasting, communications, and global financial transactions. Space also plays a key role in verifying arms control and nonproliferation treaties, providing targeting information for precision-guided munitions, conducting reconnaissance,and maintaining contact with forward-based troops. Given this growing international reliance on space, threats to space security--ranging from military to environmental to criminal--require greater attention to ensure safe access to space.” http://cns.miis.edu/research/space/index.htm

We live in the 21^st century already. The rapid progress of science and technology will provide human beings with unprecedented opportunities to explore and utilize outer space. “ For the welfare of the mankind and for the sake of peace among future generations, let us take actions and keep the genie of space weaponization and arms racing sealed tight in a bottle through the rule of law, rather than thinking it will stay there simply by magic.”(Cheng Jingye, Ministry of foreign Affairs People’s Republic of China.)