NONPROLIFERATION
IN OUTER SPACE
BENCHMARK I
Student Olga Kosykh
Teacher Viktoria Gladkova
Seversk Gymnasia
Seversk 2007
CONTENTS
1.
Introduction.
2.
Theories
of the Universe origin.
3.
Our
Solar system.
4.
History
of Man in Space.
5.
Space
weapons.
6.
Conclusion.
7.
Bibliography.
INTRODUCTION
Among all the sceneries we can behold the image of the starry sky is the
most grandiose. We admire it at clear moonless nights and it inspires our
imagination. These days the man has an opportunity to observe the Universe form
spaceships and from the surface of the Moon. The starry sky is infinite and
boundless, full of various worlds. What are those worlds like? How did they
originate and what will happen to them in future? How did our universe begin?
How old is our universe? How did matter come to exist? What is space and do
humans really need to explore it? There exist plenty of questions we have asked
ourselves throughout time and the more answers they get, the more questions
appear and much of what we know is still only speculation.
Space (Greek KosmoV) – originally is the synonym “order, harmony,
beauty”, in the course of time it changed its meaning into “world or universe”.
According to legends Pythagoras was the first who named the world with word
meaning that its parts are proportionate and harmonious.
So the Universe was perceived as a system or an organism with its life
and laws. During the Renaissance period alchemists differentiated macrocosm
meaning the outer world and microcosm meaning the man. They found a lot
similarities and mysterious analogies between them. “Cosmos” as the Universe
system term gained its popularity thanks to Humboldt who titled his enormous
work “Cosmos” where he analyzed the results of his long-term research in almost
every field of Nature Studies. /Brokgaus and Evfron dictionary/
THEORIES OF THE UNIVERSE
ORIGIN
One of the most
persistently asked questions has been: How was the universe created? Many once
believed that the universe had no beginning or end and was truly infinite.
Scientists have gathered a lot of evidence and information about the universe.
The most conservative (and widely agreed upon)
model of the universe has time beginning at the Big Bang, and does not
speculate about what may have existed "before" (or even whether this
question makes sense). However, there are alternative possibilities. In some
cosmological models (such as steady state theory or static
universe) there is no Big Bang, and the universe has infinite age:
however, the current scientific consensus is that the observational evidence
overwhelmingly supports the occurrence of a Big Bang. There are also cosmological
models (such as the cyclic model) in which the universe has existed
forever but has undergone a repeated series of Big Bangs and Big Crunches.
/www.en.wikipedia.org/
The Big
Bang
Scientists
have gathered a lot of evidence and information about the universe. They have
used their observations to develop a theory called the Big Bang. The theory
states that about 13.6 billion years ago all the matter in the universe was
concentrated into a single incredibly tiny point. This began to enlarge rapidly
in a hot explosion. At the point of this event all of the matter and energy of
space was contained at one point. What existed prior to this event is
completely unknown and is a matter of pure speculation. This occurrence was not
a conventional explosion but rather an event filling all of space with all of
the particles of the embryonic universe rushing away from each other. The Big
Bang actually consisted of an explosion of space within itself unlike an explosion
of a bomb were fragments thrown outward. The galaxies were not all clumped
together, but rather the Big Bang lay the foundations for the universe. /www.bbc.co.uk.com/
Through the
inception of the Big Bang theory, however, no longer could the universe be
considered infinite. The universe was forced to take on the properties of a
finite phenomenon, possessing a history and a beginning.
The origin
of the Big Bang theory can be credited to Edwin Hubble. Hubble made the
observation that the universe is continuously expanding. He discovered that a galaxies
velocity is proportional to its distance. Galaxies that are twice as far from
us move twice as fast. Another consequence is that the universe is expanding in
every direction. This observation means that it has taken every galaxy the same
amount of time to move from a common starting position to its current position.
Just as the Big Bang provided for the foundation of the universe, Hubble’s
observations provided for the foundation of the Big Bang theory.
Since the
Big Bang, the universe has been continuously expanding and, thus, there has
been more and more distance between clusters of galaxies. This phenomenon of
galaxies moving farther away from each other is known as the red shift. As
light from distant galaxies approach earth there is an increase of space
between earth and the galaxy, which leads to wavelengths being stretched. /www.dampt.cam.ac.uk/
The Big
Bang theory states that the universe is expanding, and as galaxies travel
outwards from their source, so the light waves coming from them become longer
by the time they reach our galaxy.
In addition
to the understanding of the velocity of galaxies emanating from a single point,
there is further evidence for the Big Bang. In 1964, two astronomers, Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson, in an attempt to detect microwaves from outer space,
inadvertently discovered a noise of extraterrestrial origin. The noise did not
seem to emanate from one location but instead, it came from all directions at
once. It became obvious that what they heard was radiation from the farthest
reaches of the universe which had been left over from the Big Bang. This
discovery of the radioactive aftermath of the initial explosion lent much credence
to the Big Bang theory. /www.map.gsfc.nasa.gov/
The four
key observational successes of the standard Hot Big Bang model are the
following:
· Origin of the cosmic background radiation
· Nucleosynthesis of the light elements
· Formation of galaxies and large-scale structure
The Big Bang model makes accurate and scientifically
testable hypotheses in each of these areas and the remarkable agreement with
the observational data gives us considerable confidence in the model. Even more
recently, NASA’s COBE satellite was able to detect cosmic microwaves emanating
from the outer reaches of the universe. These microwaves were remarkably
uniform which illustrated the homogeneity of the early stages of the universe.
However, the satellite also discovered that as the universe began to cool and
was still expanding, small fluctuations began to exist due to temperature
differences. These fluctuations verified prior calculations of the possible
cooling and development of the universe just fractions of a second after its
creation. These fluctuations in the universe provided a more detailed
description of the first moments after the Big Bang. They also helped to tell
the story of the formation of galaxies.
/www.map.gsfc.nasa.gov/
The Big
Bang theory provides a viable solution to one of the most pressing questions of
all time, the origin of the Universe. It is important to understand, however,
that the theory itself is constantly being revised. As more observations are
made and more research conducted, the Big Bang theory becomes more complete and
our knowledge of the origins of the universe more substantial. /www.map.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Expansion
of the Universe
The
Universe began about ten billion years ago in a violent explosion; every
particle started rushing apart from every other particle in an early
super-dense phase. The fact that galaxies are receding from us in all
directions is a consequence of this initial explosion and was first discovered
observationally by Hubble. There is now excellent evidence for Hubble's law which states that the
recessional velocity v of a
galaxy is proportional to its distance d from us, that is, v=Hd where H is Hubble's constant. Projecting galaxy trajectories backwards in time
means that they converge to a high density state - the initial fireball.
Last year two
teams of astronomers reported that the universe was not only expanding, but
that the expansion was accelerating. The discovery could profoundly shape
astronomers' notions about the nature of the universe. And it has tantalizing
historical interest: It means that a mathematical error that Einstein called
his biggest blunder might be correct after all.
New
observations reported at a scientific workshop in Aspen, Colorado, however,
raise some questions about the evidence that led to the discovery.
The
discovery was made by observing similar supernovae, or exploding stars,
discovered at different distances from Earth. The conclusion that the universe
is accelerating rests on the premise that these supernovae are all
approximately the same brightness. Astronomers call these Type Ia supernovae
"standard candles." That means that changes in the brightness
observed from Earth can be used to determine their distance-the dimmer they
are, the farther away they are.
But Adam
Riess and Alex Filippenko of the High-z Supernova Search Team at the University
of California at Berkeley now report that nearby Ia supernovae are increasing
in brightness more slowly than distant Ia supernovae. That could mean that the
supernovae are not of equal brightness. That, in turn, would raise questions
about the calculations that showed the universe is accelerating.
The notion
of the expanding universe is related to a mathematical quantity Einstein
devised called the "cosmological constant." He eventually discarded
it, deciding it was a mistake. If the universe is accelerating, however, it
means that Einstein's cosmological constant was correct. /www.space.com/
Origin of the cosmic background
radiation
About 100,000 years after the Big Bang, the
temperature of the Universe had dropped sufficiently for electrons and 
protons to combine into hydrogen atoms, p + e
--> H. From this time onwards, radiation was effectively unable to interact
with the background gas; it has propagated freely ever since, while constantly
losing energy because its wavelength is stretched by the expansion of the
Universe. Originally, the radiation temperature was about 3000 degrees Kelvin,
whereas today it has fallen to only 3K.
After the
universe had cooled to about 3000 billion degrees Kelvin, a radical transition
began which has been likened to the phase transition of water turning to ice.
Composite particles such as protons and neutrons, called hadrons, became the
common state of matter after this transition. Still, no matter more complex
could form at these temperatures. Although lighter particles, called leptons,
also existed, they were prohibited from reacting with the hadrons to form more
complex states of matter. These leptons, which include electrons, neutrinos and
photons, would soon be able to join their hadrons kin in a union that would define
present-day common matter.
After about
one to three minutes had passed since the creation of the universe, protons and
neutrons began to react with each other to form deuterium, an isotope of
hydrogen. Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, soon collected another neutron to form
tritium. Rapidly following this reaction was the addition of another proton
which produced a helium nucleus. Scientists believe that there was one helium
nucleus for every ten protons within the first three minutes of the universe.
After further cooling, these excess protons would be able to capture an
electron to create common hydrogen. Consequently, the universe today is
observed to contain one helium atom for every ten or eleven atoms of hydrogen.
Observers
detecting this radiation today are able to see the Universe at a very early
stage on what is known as the `surface of last scattering'. Photons in the
cosmic microwave background have been traveling towards us for over ten billion
years, and have covered a distance of about a million billion miles.
Nucleosynthesis
of the light elements
Prior to
about one second after the Big Bang, matter - in the form of free neutrons and
protons - was very hot and dense. As the Universe expanded, the temperature
fell and some of these nucleons were synthesized into the light elements:
deuterium (D), helium-3, and helium-4. Theoretical calculations for these
nuclear processes predict, for example, that about a quarter of the Universe
consists of helium-4, a result which is in good agreement with current stellar
observations.
The heavier
elements, of which we are partly made, were created later in the interiors of
stars.
Formation of galaxies and large-scale structure
After the
big bang, all matter was scattered into what can be thought of as fine dust, or
a cloud or mist. The particles were too small to be detected today. They were
what we now call sub-atomic particles. We do not know what these sub-atomic
particles consisted of. Scientists are trying to find out. We do know that
these particles were much smaller than even the basic building blocks of
electrons, protons and neutrons. Those much larger structures came later.
In the
years after the big bang, the universe rapidly expanded. And as it grew older,
the objects in it got further and further apart. Nevertheless, some objects
randomly came together and fused into larger objects. As time went on, more
particles unified and bigger objects formed. Eventually, at some point, the
relatively large objects of electrons, neutrons and protons were created. These
then came together to form the smallest atom, which is the hydrogen atom, which
consists of one proton, one neutron and one electron.
When enough
hydrogen atoms gathered together, stars were formed. The first stars were
small, but some of them came together to form bigger stars. These stars became
giant furnaces, very hot inside. These giant stars became nuclear reactors in which
smaller hydrogen atoms were cooked and fused together under enormous pressure
to become heavier elements, including especially iron and nickel.
The
standard Hot Big Bang model also provides a framework in which to understand
the collapse of matter to form galaxies and other large-scale structures
observed in the Universe today. At about 10,000 years after the Big Bang, the
temperature had fallen to such an extent that the energy density of the
Universe began to be dominated by massive particles, rather than the light and
other radiation which had predominated earlier. This change in the form of the
main matter density meant that the gravitational forces between the massive
particles could begin to take effects, so that any small perturbations in their
density would grow. Ten billion years later we see the results of this
collapse.
The standard cosmology, then, provides a framework for understanding
galaxy formation, but it does not tell us about the origin of the primordial
fluctuations required at 10,000 years. We must seek answers to questions like
these from earlier epochs in the history of the Universe /www.dampt.cam.ac.uk/
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
Our Solar System is a relative newcomer in this lengthy tale of cosmic creation. The
hypothesis about the origin of our solar system from a cloud called nebula was
first proposed I 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg. In 1755 Immanuel Kant. , who was familiar with Swedenborg's work, developed the theory further. He
argued that nebulae
slowly rotate, gradually collapsing and flattening due to gravity
and eventually forming stars
and planets.
A similar model was proposed in 1796 by Pierre-Simon Laplace.
The initial steps are indicated in the
following figures.
Collapsing Clouds of Gas and Dust
A great cloud of gas and dust, a nebula, begins to collapse because the gravitational forces that would like to
collapse it overcome the forces associated with gas pressure that would like to
expand it (the initial collapse might be triggered by a variety of
perturbations - a supernova blast wave, density waves in spiral galaxies,
etc.). /www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
|
|
|
|
In the Nebular
Hypothesis, a cloud of gas and dust collapsed by gravity begins to spin
faster because of angular momentum conservation |
|
/www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
It is
unlikely that such a nebula would be created with no angular momentum, so it is
probably initially spinning slowly. Because of conservation of angular
momentum, the cloud spins faster as it contracts.
The Spinning Nebula Flattens
Because of the competing forces associated with gravity, gas pressure,
and rotation, the contracting nebula begins to flatten into a spinning pancake
shape with a bulge at the center, as illustrated in the following figure.
|
|
|
The collapsing,
spinning nebula begins to flatten into a rotating pancake |
/www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
Condensation of Protosun and
Protoplanets
As the nebula collapses further, instabilities in the collapsing,
rotating cloud cause local regions to begin to contract gravitationally. These
local regions of condensation will become the Sun and the planets, as well as
their moons and other debris in the Solar System.
|
|
|
As the nebula
collapses further, local regions begin to contract gravitationally on their
own because of instabilities in the collapsing, rotating cloud |
/www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
While they
are still condensing, the incipient Sun and planets are called the protosun
and protoplanets, respectively. /www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
The protosun gradually compacts further,
until after about 10-50 million years, it finally reaches the conditions of
temperature and pressure needed to initiate hydrogen nuclear
fusion, and the Sun is born. As is typical of protostar or young star (a T Tauri star),
the young Sun produces a solar wind much stronger than the present solar
wind, which eventually blows the remaining gases out of the disk, and largely
ending the accretion process (particularly for the jovians).
Like most processes in a star's life, the time spent in the protosun phase
depends on mass: massive stars collapse more quickly.
The
gas in the protoplanetary disk, meanwhile, gradually cools from the
gravitational heating of its collapse, and as it cools, dust (metals and
silicates) and ice (hydrogen compounds such as water, methane,
and ammonia)
grains condense
out of the gas (solidify). These grains gently bump into neighboring grains
(collide) and stick together electrostatically, beginning the accretion
process. Gas atoms and molecules are present in great abundance, but cannot be
accreted, because they are moving too quickly to be held electrostatically.
Hydrogen and helium, 98% of the mass of the disk, remain gaseous throughout the
solar nebula, never condensing. /www.en.wikipedia.org/
Evidence
for the Nebular Hypothesis
The nebular hypothesis for the origin of our Solar System has been
bolstered by a variety of recent observations that look very much like star and
planetary systems in various stages of formation.
New Solar Systems
Recent Hubble Space Telescope observations shed considerable light on the birth of stars and associated planetary systems. The
following image shows regions in the Orion Nebula where solar systems may be forming.
|
|
|
Regions in the Orion
Nebula where solar systems appear to be forming |
/www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
Explanation:
The Great Nebula in Orion is one of the most interesting of all
astronomical nebulae known. Here fifteen pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope have been merged to show the great expanse and
diverse nature of the nebula. In addition to housing a bright open cluster of stars known as the Trapezium, the Orion Nebula contains many stellar nurseries. These nurseries contain hydrogen gas, hot young stars, proplyds, and stellar jets
spewing material at high speeds. Much of the filamentary structure visible in
this image are actually shock waves - fronts where fast moving material
encounters slow moving gas. Some shock waves are visible near one of the bright
stars in the lower left of the picture. The Orion Nebula is located in the same spiral arm of our Galaxy as is our Sun.
It takes light about 1500 years to reach us from there. /www.antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Because of the original angular momentum and subsequent evolution of the
collapsing nebula, this hypothesis provides a natural explanation for some
basic facts about the Solar System: the orbits of the planets lie nearly in a
plane with the sun at the center, the planets all revolve in the same
direction, and the planets mostly rotate in the same direction with rotation
axes nearly perpendicular to the orbital plane. /www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
The
nebular hypothesis effectively explains all the major features of our solar
system:
1. regular motions of the planets and moons
(all revolve in the nearly same plane, in nearly circular orbits, in same
direction the Sun rotates, and nearly all rotate in the nearly same direction
too)
2. all major differences between terrestrial
and jovian planets (mass, distance from Sun, composition, moon and ring
systems)
3. small bodies (asteroids and comets, both
short- and long-period)
4. exceptions to the trends (terrestrial
moons, axial tilts, non-coplanar jovian moons, Triton)
Although the basic features are explained we still do not understand
fully how all the details are accounted for by this hypothesis. /www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/
Solar System Composition
Lying within the vast expanse of the solar system, there are nine known planets that orbit the colossal star
we all know as the sun. A planet is defined as a large non-luminous celestial mass that is
generally larger than smaller celestial bodies such as comets or asteroids.
The
currently accepted nine planets that orbit around and are illuminated by the
sun include Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. The primary distinction between a star and a planet is that a star
undergoes nuclear reactions on its surface, where a planet does not.
Every known
planet in the solar system, with the exception of Earth and Uranus, is named
after a historical Roman god. Uranus is named for a Greek god. Earth was not
originally considered a planet by ancient people, but as the supposed center of
the entire universe. Each of the planets in the solar system also has at least
one additional celestial body, known as a moon that orbits around it while it orbits the sun.
Mercury and Venus are the only planets with no known moons. Earth has the next
fewest with just one moon, while Jupiter has an incredible 63 discovered moons.
/www.space.com/
Our solar system consists of not only the Sun and the planets and their
moons but it also includes numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium.
The Sun is the richest
source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the
solar system. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on
a clear night, orbits the center of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200
billion stars we call the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are
visible from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic
Cloud and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but
is 4 times as massive and is 2 million light years away. Our galaxy, one of
billions of galaxies known, is traveling through intergalactic space.
The
planets, most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around
the Sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down
from above the Sun's north pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise
direction. The planets orbit the Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is
the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the
planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun
than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendicular
to the ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.
The Sun contains 99.85% of all the matter in the Solar System. The
planets, which condensed out of the same disk of material that formed the Sun,
contain only 0.135% of the mass of the solar system. Jupiter contains more than
twice the matter of all the other planets combined. Satellites of the planets,
comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and the interplanetary medium constitute the
remaining 0.015%. The following table is a list of the mass distribution within
our Solar System.
The Sun's
period of rotation at the surface varies from approximately 25 days at the
equator to 36 days at the poles. Deep down, below the convective zone, everything appears to rotate with a period of 27 days.
Interplanetary Space
Nearly all
the solar system by volume appears to be an empty void. Far from being
nothingness, this vacuum of "space" comprises the interplanetary
medium. It includes various forms of energy and at least two material
components: interplanetary dust and interplanetary gas. Interplanetary dust
consists of microscopic solid particles. Interplanetary gas is a tenuous flow
of gas and charged particles, mostly protons and electrons - plasma - which stream from the Sun, called the solar wind.
The Terrestrial Planets
The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar
system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
They are called terrestrial because they have a compact, rocky surface like the
Earth's. The planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars have significant atmospheres while
Mercury has almost none. The following diagram shows the approximate distance
of the terrestrial planets to the Sun.
|
|
The Jovian Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets, because they are all
gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature like Jupiter's.
The Jovian planets are also referred to as the gas giants, although some or all of them might have small
solid cores. The following diagram shows the approximate distance of the Jovian
planets to the Sun.
|
|
/www.solarviews.com/
HISTORY OF MAN IN SPACE
The history
of man in space is a fascinating novel about the real events with unfabled
heroes. To find wings, to penetrate into the mysteries of the world and of the
endless Universe has been the dream of the humanity in all the historical
epochs. To approach it the best representatives of many representatives of many
nations and countries dared and created: scientists and engineers, law-abiding
citizens and revolutionaries, romantics and pragmatics. /Children’s
encyclopedia, Cosmonautics, Moscow “Avanta”, 2000/
Initially,
ancient people could only view the sky with their eyes. With careful attention
to the changing positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, they were able
to develop calendars and ultimately predictions of rare events, including eclipses.
Perhaps, Stonehenge,
built between 1900 and 1600 BC, was one of the first observatories constructed
by the man. It allowed to observe the movement of the Sun and the moon. It
helped to solve the most essential problem – to define the summer solstice when
the Sun rose in the north-east in maximum proximity to the north point. This
could be the reference point till the Sun rose exactly above the Heel Stone
signifying the end of the annum cycle. /Children’s encyclopedia, Astronomy,
Moscow “Avanta”, 2000/
Ptolemy was an earth centred (geocentric) man.
He devised an ingenious system that accounted for all the variations observed.
One such feature was epicycles used to explain the apparent backward motion of
planets across the sky. The feature is in fact easily understood with the sun
at the centre (heliocentric). All the planets further out from the sun than
earth exhibit this apparent motion. It occurs because the earth catches up and
overtakes the outer planet. Unfortunately this system remained in place until
the 1400s and became, for no apparent biblical reason, part of church doctrine.
Eventually the problem came to the surface
again. In 1473 Nicholas Copernicus was born in Poland. He set out to try and
improve on Ptolemy's system that seemed to have a few inaccuracies. He spent
many hours observing and making calculations and reached the conclusion that
the earth was just a planet and orbiting the sun. This theory matched all
observations and was wonderfully simple - but the church did not like it.
Copernicus, realizing that his views would be deemed heretical waited, until
1543, the year he died, before finally publishing his results. The church
didn't like them especially Martin Luther who said they were anti-biblical.
This is an interesting statement for nowhere in the Bible are such facts
mentioned. Unfortunately, Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake in 1600 for
adopting the Copernican beliefs. /www.homepages.tcp.co.uk/~carling/
The astronomical discoveries Galileo Galilei made with his telescopes
were described in a short book called “Message from the stars” (“Sidereus
Nuncius”) published in Venice in 1610. It caused a sensation. Galileo claimed
to have seen mountains on the Moon, to have proved the Milky Way was made up of
tiny stars, and to have seen four small bodies orbiting Jupiter. These last,
with an eye on getting a job in Florence, he promptly named 'the Medicean stars.
Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician
and physicist He is considered one of the greatest scientists in history, who
made important contributions to many fields of science. His discoveries and
theories laid the foundation for much of the progress in science since his
time. Newton was one of the inventors of the branch of mathematics called
calculus. He also solved the mysteries of light and optics, formulated the
three laws of motion, and derived from them the law of universal gravitation.
Newton's laws of motion are the most fundamental natural laws of classical
mechanics. Taken together, Newton's three laws of motion underlie all
interactions of force, matter, and motion except those involving relativistic
and quantum effects. /www.geocities.com/
Herschel was a pioneer in everything he did. Surpassing his
contemporaries he constructed the first large telescopes and had even a great
impact on the history of astronomy as a thinker who managed to reconstruct the
entire picture of the Universe from the separate pieces of information and made
the first calculations of our “star house” – of our Galaxy. His huge (for that
time) telescopes allowed him to penetrate into the world of faraway nebulas –
other star universes. He “enlarged” the scale of the Universe. . William Herschel
also demonstrated that the solar system moves through space and he discovered infrared
radiation. /Children’s
encyclopedia, Astronomy, Moscow “Avanta”, 2000/
He is also considered a founder of modern stellar
astronomy, his discovery of Uranus in 1781 was the first identification of a
planet in modern times. Herschel developed the theory of nebulas and the
evolution of stars. He catalogued many binary stars and made important
modifications to the reflecting telescope. /www.williamherschel.org.uk/
In 1846 Galle found
Neptune and in 1930 Tombaugh discovered Pluto to complete the known solar
system. /www.homepages.tcp.co.uk/~carling/
Astronomy of the
20th century
The 20th
century for the astronomy does not only mean another 100 years. It was in the
20th century that star physical nature was discovered and the
mystery of their birth was unraveled, galaxies were examined and the origin is
no longer an impossible problem to solve. The neighborhood planets were visited
and other extraterrestrial worlds were discovered. The successes in astronomy
were connected with the breakthroughs in physics. When creating and verifying
the theory of relativity the astronomical data were used. On the other hand,
the progress in physics enriched astronomy by new methods and opportunities. /Children’s encyclopedia, Astronomy, Moscow
“Avanta”, 2000/
Albert Einstein(1879 – 1955) is one of the outstanding scientists of the world.
He was known for many scientific investigations, among which were: his special theory of relativity (and
specifically mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2)
which stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics
with the laws of the electromagnetic field, his general theory of relativity which
extended the principle of relativity to include gravitation,
relativistic cosmology, capillary
action, critical opalescence, classical
problems of statistical mechanics and problems in
which they were merged with quantum theory, leading to an explanation of the Brownian movement
of molecules;
atomic
transition probabilities, the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory,
the quantum theory of a monatomic gas, the thermal
properties of light
with a low radiation
density which laid the foundation of the photon theory
of light, the theory of radiation, including stimulated emission; the construction of a unified field theory, and
the geometrization of physics. /www.en.wikipedia.org/
We have told here only about some discoveries made by various scientists
in different countries and in different epochs. But all of them imminently led
to the beginning of Space Age, the Age we live in.
It wasn't until late the 20th
century with the space age that progress equivalent to that of the early Greeks
was made. It was natural that people should dream about exploring space long
before there was any possibility of doing it. Early legends tell of inventors
harnessing birds to ride to the Moon and of similar imaginary exploits.
The first
real pioneer was the Russian schoolmaster Konstantin Tsiolkovski (1857 – 1936).
He was a serious thinker, and published his first article on space travel in
1893. He foresaw the need of liquid-fuel rockets using staging-. He created his
calculations about space flight theory on May 10, 1897. The first publication
of the results was in the article "Exploration of the Universe with
Reaction Machines", in the monthly magazine "The Science
Review",# 5 (St. Petersburg, 1903). This was the first publication in the
world on this subject.
In 1926
Tsiolkovsky defined his "Plan of Space Exploration", consisting of
sixteen steps for human expansion into space:
1) Creation of rocket airplanes with wings.
2) Progressively increasing the speed and
altitude of these airplanes.
3) Production of real rockets-without wings.
4) Ability to land on the surface of the sea.
5) Reaching escape velocity (about 8
Km/second), and the first flight into Earth orbit.
6) Lengthening rocket flight times in space.
7) Experimental use of plants to make an
artificial atmosphere in spaceships.
8) Using pressurized space suits for activity
outside of spaceships.
9) Making orbiting
greenhouses for plants.
10) Constructing large orbital habitats around
the Earth.
11) Using solar radiation to grow food, to heat
space quarters, and for transport throughout the Solar System.
12) Colonization of the asteroid belt.
13) Colonization of the entire Solar System and
beyond.
14) Achievement of individual and social
perfection.
15) Overcrowding of the Solar System and the
colonization of the Milky Way (the Galaxy).
16) The Sun begins to die and the people
remaining in the Solar System's population go to other suns.
The
greatest strides in rocketry during the first half of the 20th century also
occurred in Germany. There, mathematician and physicist Hermann Oberth and
architect Walter Hohmann theorized about rocketry and interplanetary travel in
the 1920s. During World War II, Nazi Germany undertook the first large-scale
rocket development program, headed by a young engineer named Wernher Von Braun. Von Braun’s team created the V-2, a rocket
that burned an alcohol-water mixture with liquid oxygen to produce 250,000
newtons (56,000 lb) of thrust. The Germans launched thousands of V-2s carrying
explosives against targets in Britain and the Netherlands. While they did not
prove to be an effective weapon, V-2s did become the first human-made objects
to reach altitudes above 80 km (50 mi)—the height at which outer space is
considered to begin—before falling back to Earth. The V-2 inaugurated the era
of modern rocketry. /www.encarta.msn.com/
And another
important figure was Robert H. Goddard (1882 – 1945), an American scientist who
in 1926 designed and fired the first rocket to use liquid propellants. /www.top.list.ru/
Liquid and Solid Rockets
|
|
As he sought to develop operational rockets,
U.S. scientist Dr. Robert Goddard found in the early years of the 20th century
that many people rejected his ideas as fantastic.
On the
first point, Goddard believed Newton’s theories of action, reaction and
unbalanced forces were universal.
On the
second point, his answer was to take along the needed oxygen in extremely cold
liquid form plus a liquid fuel, such as kerosene, and pump the two together
into a combustion chamber. He proved both points initially in his laboratory.
The test device not only operated in a vacuum but actually operated more efficiently—with
more thrust per pound of propellant—than in the normal air outside.
Goddard
successfully launched the world’s first liquid-fuel rocket in Massachusetts in
1926. Rudimentary by today’s standards, the rocket was ignited by a blowtorch
and flew about 184 feet in two-and-a-half seconds.
Today’s mighty space launch vehicles are, in
principle, refinements of Goddard’s simplistic rocket. /www.aerospace.org/
Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union
successfully launched Sputnik I. The world's first artificial satellite was
about the size of a basketball, weighed only 183 pounds, and took about 98
minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path. That launch ushered in new
political, military, technological, and scientific developments. While the
Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the space age and the
U.S.-U.S.S.R space race. /www.hq.nasa.gov/
Belka and Strelka
Korabl-Sputnik-2 (Spaceship Satellite-2), also known as Sputnik 5, was
launched on August 19, 1960. On board were the dogs Belka ( Squirrel) and
Strelka (Little Arrow). Also on board were 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of
plants. After a day in orbit, the spacecraft's retrorocket was fired and the
landing capsule and the dogs were safely recovered. They were the first living
animals to survive orbital flight. /www.aerospace.org/
Vostok Spacecraft
The Vostok spacecraft was used to launch Yuri
Gagarin, the first man in space. It consisted of a re-entry spacecraft and the
service module. It weighed about 4700 kg. In comparison to the later developed
Soyuz Spacecraft, Vostok had no maneuvering capabilities and required
cosmonauts to parachute to safety at the end of a flight.
Gagarin's
mission lasted one hour, 48 minutes, and ended with a landing in Kazakhstan,
approximately 26 kilometers southwest of Engels. Yuri completed one Earth
orbit, and did so 25 days prior to the first U.S. suborbital manned flight by
Alan Sheperd.
Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman in space on Vostok 6 that was
launched on June 16, 1963. The flight lasted for two days.
/www.aerospace.org/
In total 6 Vostok missions were
completed. In 1964 the rest of them were cancelled. The Soviet space program
changed its goal and its aim was to launch 3 astronauts in one spacecraft and
to perform the first space walk. A modified design was used for the Voskhod program.
/www.aerospace.org/
For the
young American president, Gagarin's flight came as a serious blow. In Kennedy's
mind, competition with the Soviets in space had become vital to U.S.
international prestige. On May 5, a former Navy test-pilot named Alan Shepard -
judged by many to be the best pilot among the Original Seven astronauts - became
the first American in space.
Inside his
tiny Mercury spacecraft, which he named Freedom 7, Shepard rode a Redstone
booster on a 15-minute suborbital flight. The nation reacted to Shepard's feat
with wild enthusiasm, and Kennedy took notice.
Kennedy had
already been thinking about how to pull ahead of the Soviets in space. He'd
asked his advisors to come up with a project that would give the U.S. a clear
victory.
Less than
three weeks after Shepard's flight, speaking before a joint session of
Congress, Kennedy made an announcement that would have seemed unthinkable just
years before: "I believe this nation should commit itself to achieving the
goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him
safely to the Earth."
Many who
heard these words - including some at NASA - wondered if Kennedy's challenge
was realistic. But it didn't take long for the space agency to begin figuring
out how to achieve it.
Meanwhile,
the space race sped onward with ever more ambitious flights. /www.imaginova.com/
The Moon Landings
The Apollo
programme was designed to achieve this task, and its purpose was to send three
astronauts to the Moon and return them safely.
The Apollo
Spacecraft consisted of the command module, service module, and lunar module.
The command module, in which the three astronauts lived on their way to and
from the Moon, was a cone-shaped chamber weighing 5.5 tons.
The Moon
landing took place on 20 July 1969. The lunar module Eagle, carrying Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, landed in the area known as the Sea of
Tranquillity. Millions of people on Earth watched on television as Armstrong
became the first man to set foot on the Moon, with the words, ‘That’s one small
step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” He was joined by Aldrin and
together they spent about two hours outside the spacecraft, taking photographs,
setting up scientific experiments and collecting rock samples. After Wit hours
on the Moon, Eagle took off and rejoined the orbiting command module Columbia,
in which Michael Collins had remained. Left on the Moon was a plaque reading:
“Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969AD. We
came in peace for all mankind.” The crew returned safely to Earth on 24 July.
There were
12 manned missions to the Moon and all in all, the Apollo astronauts brought
back 385 kilograms of lunar soil and rocks and an enormous quantity of
information which is still being studied by scientists. /www.top.list.ru/
Voskhod and Gemini
Programs
The Russian Voskhod was an adaptation of the Vostok spacecraft modified
to accommodate two and three cosmonauts. On Oct. 12, 1964, cosmonauts Vladimir
M. Komarov (1927-67), Boris B. Yegorov (1937-94), and Konstantin P. Feoktistov
(1926- ) made a 15-orbit flight in Voskhod 1. This was the
only piloted flight that year and brought the total cumulative man-hours of
Soviet cosmonauts in space to 455. The U.S. astronauts had a total then of 54
man-hours in space. On March 18, 1965, cosmonauts Pavel I. Belyayev (1925-70)
and Aleksei A. Leonov (1934- ) were launched in Voskhod 2.
During this 17-orbit flight, Leonov made the first walk in space, or performed
extravehicular activity (EVA), leaving the spacecraft and drifting out on an
umbilical tether.
The U.S. Gemini program was designed to develop the technology required
to go to the moon. The Gemini spacecraft carried two astronauts and was to
operate for extended periods of time and to develop rendezvous and docking
techniques with another orbiting spacecraft. Ten Gemini flights with human
passengers were made in 1965-66.
During the Gemini 4 flight Maj. Edward H. White II (1930-67) of the air
force became the first U.S. astronaut to perform EVA. Using a pressurized-gas,
jet-maneuvering device, he spent 21 min in space. While Gemini 6 and 7 were in
orbit together in December 1965, they rendezvoused within a few feet of each
other. After orbiting for 20 hr, Gemini 6 with Schirra and Maj. Thomas P.
Stafford (1930- ) of the air force landed, and Gemini 7 with
Lt. Col. Frank Borman (1928- ) of the air force and Comdr.
James A. Lovell, Jr. (1928- ), of the navy went on to spend a
total of 334 hr in orbit. This flight of nearly 14 days provided medical data
on humans in space that was necessary to assure success of the 10-day Apollo lunar
mission. Furthermore, it demonstrated the reliability of systems such as
hydrogen-oxygen fuel-cell electric power and reaction controls. On the Gemini
10, 11, and 12 flights, rendezvous and docking were accomplished repeatedly
with a target vehicle that had previously been orbited.
By the end of the last Gemini flight in November 1966, U.S. astronauts
had accumulated nearly 2000 man-hours in space, which exceeded the Soviet
cosmonaut total, and about 12 hr in EVA. /www.history.com/
Soyuz, Salyut, and Mir
The Soviets
concentrated on unmanned probes and manned flights in Earth orbit. They
explored the Moon with unmanned spacecraft, following their first soft landing
by Luna 9 in 1966. In 1970 Luna 16 brought back to Earth a soil sample from the
Sea of Fertility, and the automatic lunar rover Lunokhod 1 explored the Sea of
Rains. A second rover, Lunokhod 2, landed in the Lemonnier Crater in 1973. The
manned flight program, which had begun so successfully, received a setback in
1967 when cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov was killed on re-entry in Soyuz 1, the
first of a new generation of Soviet manned spacecraft.
Though
smaller than the American Apollo, the Soyuz spacecraft has remained in use. The
latest version is called the Soyuz TM. The Soyuz is a modular spacecraft,
consisting of an orbital module, descent module, and instrument module. The
cosmonaut crew work in space in the orbital module, and return to Earth in the
descent module. They remain in the descent module all the way down, using
parachutes and retrorockets to slow their descent to a soft landing. The main
purpose of Soyuz is as a craft to ferry cosmonauts to an orbiting space
station.
The first space station, Salyut 1, was launched
in 1971, and was visited by the Soyuz 11 crew (Georgi Dobrovolski, Vladislav
Volkov, and Viktor Patsayev) for 23 days. By 1983 six more Salyut craft had
been launched and cosmonauts were staying longer and longer in orbit. In 1984
cosmonauts Kizim, Solovyov, and Atkov set up a space duration record by spending
237 days in orbit aboard Salyut 7. During this time, they were visited by other
cosmonaut crews and were supplied with fresh fuel, food, and equipment by
unmanned Progress craft. In 1983 and 1985 large Cosmos unmanned craft were
automatically docked with Salyut 7, making it into a large space station. From
the space station a detachable descent module could carry materials and
experiments back to Earth.
In 1986 the
Soviets launched “Mir”, the central module of a new space station far more
complex than Salyut. As with Salyut, Mir was designed to receive both manned
Soyuz craft and unmanned Progress cargo craft.
International crews
have been working on “Mir” since 1995. The first one involved an American
astronaut, the second an astronaut from ESA. Since 1996 Russian cosmonauts and
American astronauts have been working together constantly taking over shifts.
One of the “Mir” advantages is its
maintainability already provided for at the design stage. Thanks to the
regulated system of preventive measures it became possible to increase the
station working resource.
The
International Space Station
The ISS is an International program created an
International Space Station. Eventually the ISS may be privatized.
It is the
largest space project to date and a joint a collaboration of 16 countries:
Russia (Russian Federal Space Agency - formerly Rosaviakosmos), United States
(NASA), Brazil, Canada (Canadian Space Agency), Japan Aerospace Exploration
Agency (JAXA) and the European Space Agency. ESA members involved are Belgium,
Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland and United Kingdom. /www.aerospaceguide.net/
Reusable
Shuttles
In April 1981 the launch of the space shuttle
Columbia ushered in a period of reliance on the reusable shuttle for most
civilian and military space missions. Twenty-four successful shuttle launches
fulfilled many scientific and military requirements until January 1986, when
the shuttle Challenger exploded after launch, killing its crew of seven.
The
Challenger tragedy led to a reevaluation of America’s space program. The new
goal was to make certain a suitable launch system was available when satellites
were scheduled to fly. Today this is accomplished by having more than one
launch method and launch facility available and by designing satellite systems
to be compatible with more than one launch system. /www.aero.org/
Skylab
The United States
placed its first, and only, space station, called Skylab 1, in orbit in 1973.
During the launch, the station was damaged. A critical meteoroid shield and one
of the station's two main solar panels were ripped off and the other solar
panel was not fully stretched out. That meant that Skylab had little electrical
power and the internal temperature rose to 126 degrees Fahrenheit (52 degrees
Celsius). The first crew was launched 10 days later to fix the ailing station.
The astronauts stretched out the remaining solar panel and set up an
umbrella-like sunshade to cool the station. With the station repaired, that
crew and two subsequent crews spent a total of 112 days in space, conducting
scientific and biomedical research.
|
|
After the
Soviets launched Sputnik I, NASA formally came into being on 1 October 1958. A
National Aeronautics and Space Act was hurriedly drawn up. It passed the
Congress in July Among its first presidentially approved actions was the
absorption of a number of military space exploration programs, including those
directed by the famous Army rocketry team at Huntsville, Alabama, under Wernher
von Braun, plus the von Braun team itself.
Both
American and Soviet rocket developments were driven by military considerations.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had been formed to
create at least a formal separation between military and non-military space
exploration. For its manned space program, NASA had selected seven military
test pilots as its first astronauts. It had been decided that military test
pilots had the perfect personalities and skills. Certainly a honed piloting
ability was necessary, but also the cool efficiency to live with no margin of
error, and not least, the military personality that bonds with its mates and
accepts command orders. /www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/
The Cold War
The time and progress
went on and by the end of the 1960s, just some years after the first launch,
both countries regularly deployed satellites. Space as well as any other
discovery or invention became victim of the military. It was not used for
peaceful purposes only but for military ones as well.
Militaries applied
satellites to take accurate pictures of their rivals' military installations.
As time passed the resolution and accuracy of orbital reconnaissance alarmed
both sides of the iron curtain. Both the United States and the Soviet Union
began to develop anti-satellite weapons to blind or destroy each others
satellites. Laser weapons, kamikaze style satellites, as well as orbital
nuclear explosion were researched with varying levels success. Spy satellites
were, and continue to be, used to monitor the dismantling of military assets in
accordance with arms control treaties signed between the two superpowers. To
use spy satellites in such a manner is often referred to in treaties as
"national technical means of verification".
The superpowers
developed ballistic missiles to enable them to use nuclear weaponry across
great distances. As rocket science developed, the range of missiles increased
and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) were created, which could strike
virtually any target on Earth in a timeframe measured in minutes rather than
hours or days. In order to cover large distances ballistic missiles are usually
launched into sub-orbital spaceflight. An intercontinental missile's altitude
halfway through delivery is ca. 1200 km.
As soon as
intercontinental missiles were developed, military planners began programs and
strategies to counter their effectiveness. Early American efforts included the
Nike-Zeus Program, Project Defender, the Sentinel Program and the Safeguard
Program. Since the ABM treaty only allowed for construction of a single ABM
facility to protect either the nation's capital city or an ICBM field, the
Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex was constructed near Nekoma, North
Dakota to protect the Grand Forks ICBM facility. One major problem with the
Safeguard Program, and past ABM systems, was that the interceptor missiles,
though state of the art, required nuclear warheads to destroy incoming ICBMs.
The technology involved in such systems was shaky at best, and deployment was
limited by the ABM treaty of 1972.
In 1983 American
president Ronald Reagan proposed the "Strategic Defense Initiative" —
a space-based system to protect the United States from attack by strategic
nuclear missiles. The plan was ridiculed by some as unrealistic and expensive,
and Dr. Carol Rosin nicknamed the policy "Star Wars", after the
popular sci-fi movie franchise. The late astronomer Carl Sagan, among others,
pointed out that in order to defeat "Star Wars" the Soviet Union had
only to build more missiles. So that during a nuclear war the Soviet Union
could throw more warheads at the United States and penetrate the "Star
Wars" defense barrier by the brute force of numbers.
Militarization of
space was not limited to ICBMs or an American "Stars Wars" weapon
system. The Soviet Union was also researching innovative ways of gaining space
supremacy. Two of their most notable efforts were the Fractional Orbital
Bombardment System (FOBS) and Polyus orbital weapons system.
FOBS was a Soviet ICBM in the 1960s that once launched would go into a
low Earth orbit where upon it would de-orbit for an attack. This system would
create a path to North America over the South Pole, striking targets from the
opposite direction from which NORAD early warning systems are oriented. The
missile was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the SALT II treaty.
The SALT II treaty
(1979) prohibited the deployment of FOBS systems. Each Party undertakes not to
develop, test, or deploy systems for placing into Earth orbit nuclear weapons
or any other kind of weapons of mass destruction, including fractional orbital
missiles.
On May 15, 1987, an
Energia rocket flew for the first time. The payload was a prototype orbital
weapons platform Polyus (also known as Polus, Skif-DM or 17F19DM), the final
version of which according to some reports could be armed with nuclear space
mines and defensive cannon. The Polyus weapons platform was designed to defend
itself against anti-satellite weapons with recoilless cannon. It was also
equipped with a sensor blinding laser to confuse approaching weapons and could
launch test targets to validate the fire control system. The attempt to place
the satellite into orbit failed.
Post-Cold War
As the Cold War ended
with the implosion of the Soviet Union the space race between the two
superpowers ended. Besides, countries such as China, Japan, and India have
begun their own space programs, while the European Union collectively works to
create satellite systems to rival those of the United States.
Besides, there
appears to be no way currently that we can separate the need for a strong free
world militarizing of space from the broader problems of international terrorism
and military confrontations with what have been called “rogue” nations.
Nevertheless, a precipitous, headlong rush toward an unquestioned and pervasive
militarizing of near and deep space for “defensive” purposes, but with
pre-emptive capabilities, could easily lead to an open and civilian use of
space being relegated to a long-term backseat position; particularly if
constant and effective public scrutiny of the military space budget and
research and operating plans are not ensured. /www.cosmos-club.org/
SPACE WEAPONS
Militarized
space is already a fact. A
whole armada of satellites for purposes such as navigation, surveillance and
communication is now in orbit. Specifically, they perform the function of
"force multipliers" by increasing the efficiency of military
operations on land, sea and air ("space force enhancement.
What is the
current state of space armament? There are currently no implemented space-based
weapons systems known. Space-based laser weapons and space-based missiles (both
for the purposes of missile defense) are just as much in the research and
development stage.
The USA and
Russia have long had technological capabilities to disrupt and possible to
destroy satellites from the ground (or air), and the technologies are being
continuously upgraded. Besides lasers and high-power microwave systems, these
include primarily the technological competence of the USA and Russia in the
form of air-based anti-satellite systems.
Any state
with nuclear weapons is technologically in a position to use a high-atmosphere nuclear
explosion to damage satellites (including their own) in a number of orbits.
Further proliferation of ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons could increase
the number of states and substantial actors with this capability in the next
few years.
Attacks
against the terrestrial part by satellite systems (conventional, electronic)
offer yet another possibility for disrupting or damaging these, which is
available to far more conceivable actors, as it involves less technological
sophistication.
Numerous
states see this potential expansion of military space systems as a danger to
the stability of the international order. The concern is that a global spiral
of measures and countermeasures could set off a general arms race. The question
that arises here is whether and how arms control policy could prevent these
possible developments. /www.iki.rssi.ru/
The role of
modern armed forces is undisputed. New technologies make possible improvement
in quality and force of weapon systems and units and open up novel options for
political and military action. The use of improved and expanded technological
options in the next few years can be expected to have decisive impact on the
role and options for action of the military, the stability of the international
order and ultimately warfare.
Arms
control policy is facing these new challenges and must respond to structural
changes in the international system and the pace of technology in the
Information Age. For this reason and also because of the changing defense
policy environment, the agenda for a preventive arms control policy should be
extended as early as possible to include evaluation and design of research,
development and testing with military relevance and their consequences.
This also
applies to scientific and technological developments in the field of military
use of space. Not least because of new technological possibilities, space is
increasingly being accorded a key function from the point of view of military
planners and of the security policy of the leading military powers. Global
expenditure on military R&D is growing for concepts, technologies and
systems. The use of space for security needs is becoming a central element in
strategies, doctrines and planning. Nowadays all the economically developed
countries are the most important driving force behind this trend. Space is
increasingly regarded there as a central civil and military resource with the
highest priority. Its military uses opens up numerous options for gaining and
securing information superiority, prevention, deterrence and waging war which
the military and politicians perceive as attractive.
Of the
developments listed, the focus is particularly on those which lead to the
"weaponization" of space through relatively passive use – for systems
of surveillance, communication and control. This addresses particularly the
option of stationing weapons systems for use to, in and from space. From the
perspective of arms control policy, this trend poses a problem, as it emerges
that existing space law instruments and existing arms control agreements are
unsuitable for slowing further militarization of space, let alone preventing
it. /www.tab.fzk.de/
There are
signs now that a threshold is being crossed in military use of space – in
future weapons systems could be further developed to the point of deployment
whose stationing on earth or in space could initiate an arms race. /www.tab.fzk.de/
The
Definition of “SPACE WEAPONS”
Space weapons
for terrestrial conflict have been the subject of intense debate twice in the
modern history of space. The first time, at the beginning of the Cold War, was
over the possibility of bombardment satellites carrying nuclear weapons. The second
time, at the end of the Cold War, was over the possibility of space-based
defenses against nuclear missiles. Now, well past the Cold War, the topic of
space weapons seems headed again for public debate, this time based on
ballistic missile defense.
There exist different definitions of “space
weapons” proposed by various countries and organizations. Here in this work we
have chosen only several of them to show that there is practically no
difference in this term definitions.
1.
Russia: “Systems
or devices, based on any physical principle, launched into the orbit around the
Earth or placed in the outer space by any other way, which are produced or
converted to destroy, damage or disrupt normal functioning of objects in outer
space, as well as targets on the surface of the Earth or in the air. Space
weapons are created to directly impact adversary's assets, and, by its nature,
can be either weapons of mass destruction or conventional ones, including those
based on new physical principles. It is exactly this kind of weapons that
Russia has committed itself not to be the first to place in outer space”. /www.armscontorl.ru/
2.
The USA: “Space
weapons are the weapons that can:
· attack and negate the capability of space
systems in orbit (i.e. anti-satellite weapons)
- attack targets on the earth (i.e. orbital bombardment weapons)
- defeat missiles travelling through
space (i.e. elements of the ongoing U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative
program).” /www.rand.org/
3.
the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), 1991: “A
space weapon is a device stationed in outer space (including the moon and other
celestial bodies) or in the earth environment designed to destroy, damage or
otherwise interfere with the normal functioning of an object or being in outer
space, or a device stationed in outer space designed to destroy, damage or otherwise
interfere with the normal functioning of an object or being in the earth environment.
Any other device with the inherent capability to be used as defined above will
be considered as a space weapon.” /www.en.wikipedia.org/
4.
France: “Any
satellite or space object in orbit around the earth or any other celestial body
which has at least one active function capable, by direct action, of
destroying, seriously damaging or intentionally interfering with the operation
of any device located on earth or above the earth within the atmosphere or in
outer space should be regarded as a weapon in space.” /www.en.wikipedia.org/
As we can see in all the examples given space
weapons are the weapons whose mission is, to destroy, disrupt or at least
interfere with the work of an enemy vehicle, satellite, a missile, etc.
Space Weapons Compared
Space weapons can be based in space or on the
ground and they may be aimed at targets in either place. So, there is the
possibility of ‘Space to Space’, ‘Space to Earth’, ‘Earth to Space’, or ‘Earth
to Earth’ (through space) weapons. /www.en.wikipedia.org/
It is important to understand that “space-based
weapons” generally include several distinct classes:
•
directed-energy weapons
•
kinetic-energy weapons against missile targets
•
kinetic-energy weapons against surface targets
• space-based
conventional weapons against surface targets.
Directed-energy weapons
Directed-energy weapons include a range of
weapons from electronic jammers to laser cutting torches. While jammers need to
transmit only enough power to compete with the targeted receivers’ intended
signals, destroying ballistic missile boosters would require developing and
deploying lasers with millions of watts of power directed by optics on the
order of ten meters in diameter. Directed-energy weapons could destroy targets
on or above the earth’s surface, depending on the wavelength of the energy propagated
and the conditions of the atmosphere, including weather. Although the energy a
laser delivers propagates at the speed of light, the laser has to hold its beam
on a target until energy accumulates to a destructive level at the target.
After destroying a target, it can retarget as quickly as it can point at the
next missile, should it have sufficient fuel. When defending against a salvo of
missiles, the laser will only be able to destroy a certain number of missiles
while they are in their vulnerable boost phase. That number will depend on the
laser’s distance from the launch position and the hardness of the missile
target. The farther the laser weapon is based from the target and the harder
the material of the target, the fewer missiles the laser will be able to
destroy during boost phase. Because the distance of laser satellites from
missile launch points fluctuates in a predictable way, an opponent launching
missiles will be able to choose to launch at times that allow the maximum
number of missiles to penetrate the defense.
Kinetic-energy weapons against missile
targets
Kinetic-energy weapons come in two types: those
designed to destroy targets
outside the earth’s atmosphere and those that can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere. The first
type, described here, could
conceivably provide an additional layer of defense against targets that leak through the laser weapons’
boost-phase defense. They would
destroy targets using the kinetic energy of high-velocity impact and would require very little weapon mass.
As with directed energy weapons,
the short response time for missile defense would require dozens of weapons in space for each one
within reach of a potential
target. However,
kinetic-energy weapons for use against missile targets are handicapped in their ability to respond quickly
to the missile threat. They
are not able to engage targets below 60 km because the interceptor needs to stay out of the atmosphere. This may
mean that the intercept
could only occur after the missile’s boost phase, when multiple warheads and decoys may have been
deployed, creating the potential
for saturation an order of magnitude greater than for boost phase defense with directed-energy weapons.
Kinetic-energy weapons against surface
targets
Space-based kinetic-energy weapons for surface
targets also destroy targets by using their own mass moving at very high
velocities. Unlike weapons that engage targets outside the earth’s atmosphere,
these must be large enough to survive reentry through the earth’s atmosphere
with a speed high enough to be destructive. To preserve accuracy and energy
through reentry, they have to attack targets at steep, nearly vertical
trajectories. This would mean having either a great many weapons in low orbits
to have one within reach of a target whenever needed or a smaller number at
higher orbits with longer times to reach targets. A reasonable high-altitude
constellation would place about six weapons in orbit for each target to achieve
response times of two to three hours from initiation of the attack to
destruction of the target. The effort required to deliver one of these weapons
to orbit and then to a target would be similar to that required for a large
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Such weapons could be effective against
stationary (or slowly moving) surface targets that are vulnerable to vertical
penetration of a few meters, such as large ships, missile silos, hardened
aircraft shelters, tall buildings, fuel tanks, and munitions storage bunkers.
Because of their meteoroidlike speed entering the atmosphere, these weapons
would be very difficult to defend against.
Space-based conventional weapons against
surface targets
Space-based conventional weapons would inherit
their accuracy, reach, target sets, and lethality from the conventional munitions
they deliver. Such weapons could engage a broader range of targets than
kinetic-energy weapons, including maneuvering targets and more deeply buried
targets. They could use “old” technology. The systems used to deliver them from
space might resemble those developed for the return of film and biological
specimens from orbit in the 1960s. The effort to deliver conventional weapons
to orbit and then to a terrestrial target is similar to that for space-based
kinetic-energy weapons, but conventional weapons are much more responsive. They
would take about 10 minutes from weapon release to deployment in the
atmosphere, plus whatever time the conventional munitions need to reach the
target after that. Small, precision weapons would be preferred for space basing,
since their launch costs are higher than the costs of delivering them from
aircraft or ships. It would take about six weapons in orbit to keep one within
10 minutes of a target on earth.
Purposes of the space weapons
Another
aspect to the question of what is a space weapon is that there are many space
based systems that may have a dual purpose. Some space systems can be deployed
for non-military purposes and yet easily turned to an offensive capability. For
example: maneuverable micro satellites or space planes could be used to perform
a number of peaceful functions in space, including civilian communications,
satellite maintenance or repair, etc. but could also be used more aggressively
as ASAT weapons.
Scientists have tackled the space weapon
definition problem by classifying military space activities into three
categories – two generally agreed areas and one grey area, as shown in Table The
white area includes military activities that do not involve weapons based in
space while the black area comprises technologies are generally considered as
space weapons. The grey area covers a range of technologies that fall between these
two. /www.rand.org/
The spectrum of military space activity
|
Space
Weapons (Generally
or historically prohibited) |
Intermediate
Systems |
Military
activities not involving
Space Weapons (Generally
allowed) |
|
-
WMD or
radiological weapons -
Space-based
directed energy weapons -
Space-based
kinetic weapons -
Anti-satellite
satellites (ASAT) destruction or degrade other satellites |
-
ASAT – Deny
access to satellite or ground system, passive measures, encryption -
ASAT –
Temporarily interfere with satellite or ground system (cyber attacks
etc.)operation -
ASAT Disrupt
operations of space or ground segments permanently -
Ground-based
directed (at space)weapons -
Nuclear weapons
for NEO defense -
Ground based
jamming -
Suborbital
intercept missiles for missile defense |
-
Communication -
Navigation -
Reconnaissance
(space-based or high altitude platforms) -
Space-monitoring
networks -
Early warning
systems ICBM with suborbital trajectory -
Suborbital
delivery of troops or equipment |
Existing space weapons
Anti-satellite weapons
Perhaps the
most commonly discussed type of space weapon is the ASAT which have been
developed in one form or another by the US and Russia in a range of programs
since the Cold War. In the 1960s the Soviet Union surrounded Moscow with
nuclear-tipped inter-continental ballistic missiles to act as an Anti-Ballistic
Missile (ABM) system. These missiles would also have ASAT capabilities as they
would be able to destroy all space-based systems in the vicinity of their
detonation. However, the main ASAT system developed by the Soviet Union was the
"Co-orbital ASAT"
- a satellite suicide bomb packed with explosives. The idea was to place the ASAT in an orbit
close to that of the target and move it in to destroy it within one or two
orbits. Development began in the early 1960s and the first test flights were
made in 1968. The Soviets temporarily ceased testing after signing the ABM
Treaty in 1972, but resumed again in 1976 and continued until 1982 after which
they declared a moratorium on launching ASATs on the condition that no other
country deployed them. /www.iki.rssi.ru/
U.S. ASAT missile /www.astronautix.com/
An intercontinental
ballistic missile, or ICBM, is a very long-range (greater than 5,500 km or
3,500 miles) ballistic missile typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery,
that is, delivering one or more nuclear warheads. Due to their great range and
firepower, in an all-out nuclear war, submarine and land-based ICBMs would
carry most of the destructive force, with nuclear-armed bombers the remainder.
ICBMs are
differentiated by having greater range and speed than other ballistic missiles:
intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles,
and the newly-named theatre ballistic missiles. Categorizing missiles by range
is necessarily subjective and the boundaries are chosen somewhat arbitrarily,
and so exact boundaries between range classes are not (and never can be)
authoritative except within a community which has agreed to a set of
definitions.
