SPACE: FORUM FOR
COOPERAION OR NEXT FRONTIER FOR WMD PROLIFERATION
BENCHMARK I
The Author: Kate
Philimonova
Form 10A
Municipal School №112
The Teacher-Advisor: Olga
Nevolina
The Teacher of English
Municipal School №112
Trekhgorny
Chelyabinsk Region
Russia
2007
Introduction.
In our work we are going to make a
research work and to build our definitions of the space and other basic,
background knowledge about space and explore possible motives that make people
step in to the universe.
We are going to see how people’s interest
to the space has been developing, what people made contributions in to
the space development and how do we use the space.
Space definitions and
terminology.
Now we are just like
misunderstood dreamers, and we are to invent a wheel, a new one that will move
us to a better understanding of the question studied. It’s not an easy task to
give a definition of the
word that has been already given by the scientists, in different encyclopedias.
In our work we use
different information recourses, that help us to create our own definitions.
They are Webster’s New
World College Dictionary, Explanatory Dictionaries of the Russian Language,
different books on astronomy and some Internet Recourses. These sources in
total give us a complete picture
of the questions we search for.
Space – is the
system with some cosmic objects in it. It is the expanse in which the solar
system stars, and galaxies exist; the universe1. There are some
types of space:
absolute space - physical space independent of what occupies
it
phase space - (physics) an ideal space in which the
coordinate dimensions represent the variables that are required to describe a
system or substance; "a multidimensional phase space"
mathematical space, topological space - (mathematics) any set of points that satisfy
a set of postulates of some kind; "assume that the topological space is
finite dimensional"
outer space - any location outside the Earth's atmosphere;
"the astronauts walked in outer space without a tether"
aerospace - the atmosphere and outer space considered as
a whole
At all the word "space" has eight definitions, which are used
in different field of science32.
Galaxy-huge groups of stars. Stars are found in huge groups called galaxies.
Scientists estimate that the larger galaxies may contain as many as a trillion
stars, while the smallest may have fewer than a million. Galaxies can be up to
100,000 light-years in diameter.
Galaxies
may have any of four general shapes. Elliptical galaxies show little or no
structure and vary from moderately flat to spherical in general shape. Spiral
galaxies have a small, bright central region, or nucleus, and arms that come
out of the nucleus and wind around, trailing off like a giant pinwheel. In
barred spiral galaxies, the arms extend sideways in a short straight line
before turning off into the spiral shape. Both kinds of spiral systems are
flat. Irregular galaxies are usually rather small and have no particular shape
or form.
Like
most stars, the sun belongs to a galaxy. Since the sun and Earth are embedded
in the galaxy, it is difficult for us to obtain an overall view of the galaxy.
In fact, what you can see of its structure is a faint band of stars called the
Milky Way (the word galaxy comes from the Greek word for "milk"), so
our galaxy has been named the Milky Way galaxy.
The
visible band of the Milky Way seems to form a great circle around Earth. This
indicates that the galaxy is flat rather than spherical. (If it were spherical,
the stars would not be especially concentrated in a single band.) The sun is
located on the inner edge of a spiral arm. The center, or nucleus, of the
galaxy is about 30,000 light-years distant, in the direction of the
constellation Sagittarius. All the stars visible without a telescope belong to
the Milky Way galaxy.
All the stars
in the galaxy move in orbits around its center. The sun takes about 200 million
years to complete an orbit. The orbits of most of these stars are nearly
circles and are nearly in the same direction. This gives a sense of rotation to
the galaxy as a whole, even as the entire galaxy moves through space. It is possible
to calculate how much matter the galaxy must have in order to hold a star in
its orbit by the force of gravity. In this way the approximate number of stars
in the galaxy can be estimated.
According to
the Doppler effect, a general relationship seems to exist throughout the
universe: the greater the speed of a galaxy, the greater its distance. This
relationship suggests that the system of galaxies is expanding. Suppose the
galaxies were at one time in a rather small volume of space. After a time, the fast
galaxies would have sped far from the original position, while the slow
galaxies would still be nearby. The result would be a velocity-distance
relationship exactly like the one observed.3
Universe-is the space with all planets in it. Cosmology is the scientific inquiry into what the
universe is like. By making assumptions that are not contradicted by the
behavior of the observable universe, scientists build models, or theories, that
attempt to describe the universe as a whole, including its origin and its
future. They use each model until something is found that contradicts it. Then
the model must be modified or discarded.
Since the universe appears to be
expanding, it seems that it must have been smaller in the past. This is the
basis for evolutionary theories of the universe. If one could trace the
galaxies back in time, one would find a time at which they were all close
together. Observations of the expansion rate indicate that this was between 10
and 20 billion years ago. Thus we have a picture of an evolving universe that
started in some kind of explosion--the big bang. Some models of the universe
predict that the expansion will continue forever. Others say that it will stop
and be followed by a contraction back to a small volume again. Another model
suggests that the universe oscillates, with alternate expansions and
contractions.
Astronomers
supporting the open universe theory believe that the universe will expand
forever because they believe it is infinite. Supporters of the closed universe
theory believe that at some time in the future the universe will stop expanding
and will begin to contract until eventually a situation termed the "big
crunch" would occur.3
Cosmos - the whole Universe
considered as an ordered system5
Star-is a dead planet. People of the ancient world
thought that stars were tiny lights on the inner side of a great, hollow globe.
They made up stories about them and gave names to the patterns that they saw in
the sky night after night and year after year (see Astrology; Constellation). Only with the birth
of the modern science of astronomy did the true nature of the universe begin to
reveal itself (see
Astronomy).
Scientists
still cannot say exactly what a star is. They do, however, know many facts
about these myriad companions to the sun, which lights and warms the Earth.
Astronomers
generally agree that most stars have approximately the same diameter as our
sun. Some, however, are only one tenth its size; while others may be more than
100 times as large.
Stars are
actually great globes of incandescent gases--their brightness depending upon
their size and temperature. These glowing spheres are enormous powerhouses of
atomic energy, and it is now believed that this energy is released by a process
similar to the thermonuclear reaction that takes place in a hydrogen bomb
explosion (see Nuclear
Energy). The chemical content of a star is determined through the science that
is known as astrophysics. In many stars the gases may be unbelievably thin,
with the particles or atoms of matter in the gas far enough apart to make it a
thousand times less dense than the air we breathe. Yet, for all its thinness,
matter is there, perhaps a million times as much as we have in the Earth.
Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are there, and perhaps iron, calcium, and other
elements too. In cooler stars the matter may be more nearly liquid, more like
the boiling iron in a blast furnace. In some old and comparatively cold stars,
the matter may be packed so densely that a cubic inch of it would weigh a ton.
Such stars are called dead or dark.
Stars vary
greatly in size and in color. They range from giant stars, which are much
larger than the sun, to dwarf stars, which can be much smaller than the sun. In
color they range from whitish blue stars with very high surface temperatures
(more than 30,000 Kelvin, or 53,500o F) to relatively cool red stars (less than
3,500 K, or 5,840o F).
The star that
we know best is our own sun. It is the center of our solar system, and the
Earth revolves around it. The sun is only one among billions of stars.
Likewise, our solar system is only a small segment of the great galaxy we call
the Milky Way. Many other galaxies are visible through telescopes.3
Sun - a yellow dwarf star,
a kind that is common in the Milky Way, and has a surface temperature of about
5,800 K (10,000o F). (The Kelvin temperature scale uses degrees of the same
size as Celsius, or centigrade, degrees, but it is numbered from absolute zero,
which is -273.15o C.) Although the sun is a rather ordinary star, it is very
important to the inhabitants of the Earth. The sun is the source of virtually
all of the Earth's energy. Yet the Earth receives only half a billionth of the
energy that leaves the sun. Because the sun's energy is so intense, there are
some real dangers in studying it. The intense heat of the sun's rays can
destroy the retinal cells, causing blindness. For this reason, the sun should
never be viewed directly. Furthermore, there is no safe way to view the sun
through an ordinary telescope. Smoked glass and dark glasses give no protection
from the great concentration of heat and light. The only safe way to study the
sun is to project its image through a pinhole or a telescope onto a white
screen.
The
average distance of the sun from the Earth, arbitrarily called one astronomical
unit by astronomers, is 149,597,870 kilometers (92,958,350 miles). The sun's
radius is about 432,500 miles, or 109.3 times the radius of the Earth, giving
the sun a volume of about 1,306,000 times the volume of the Earth. It has been
calculated that the sun's mass, or quantity of matter, is some 333,400 times as
great as the Earth's mass.
A ray of light
traveling from the sun at about 186,282 miles per second takes about 8 minutes
19 seconds to reach the Earth. Light from those other suns, the stars, takes
much longer to reach the Earth. Light from the next nearest star, Alpha
Centauri, takes more than four years to arrive, and light from the center of
our galaxy, the Milky Way, takes many thousands of years. Because the sun is so
near, it seems much larger than the other stars. They are visible on Earth only
as bright points, even when viewed with the most powerful telescopes.3
Planet - the relatively large natural bodies that
revolve in orbits around the sun, and presumably around other stars as well.
The term does not include such smaller bodies as comets, meteors, and
asteroids, many of which are little more than pieces of ice or rock.
The sun, the
nine planets, their satellites, and all the smaller bodies, particles, and dust
that circle the sun form the solar system. The sun, near the center of the
solar system, governs the planets' orbital motions by gravitational attraction
and provides the planets with light and heat. In order of increasing mean
distance from the sun, the nine planets of the solar system are Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn can be seen without a telescope. The ancient Greeks
called them planetes, or
"wanderers," because the objects appeared to move across the
background of the apparently fixed stars. Although Uranus is also sometimes
visible without a telescope, ancient astronomers were unable to distinguish it
from the true stars.30,3
Meteor and meteorite - “object
(usually not very big), which can fall down to the Earth from the space”. 2A
flaming streak flashes across the night sky and disappears. On rare occasions
the flash of light plunges toward Earth, producing a boom like the thundering
of guns and causing a great explosion when it lands. When ancient peoples
witnessed such displays, they believed they were seeing a star fall from the
sky, and so they called the object a shooting star or a falling star.
Today these blazing trails of light are more
fully understood. They are known to be caused by small chunks of stony or
metallic matter from outer space that enter the Earth's atmosphere and
vaporize. Before they encounter Earth's atmosphere, these chunks of matter are
called meteoroids. Once they enter the atmosphere, they are called meteors.
Most meteors never reach Earth--they are so tiny that they vaporize completely
soon after entering the atmosphere. Sometimes the particles are large enough,
however, that they remain partly intact. The large, dense objects that survive
the fall to Earth are called meteorites. Although thousands of meteoroids enter
the atmosphere each year, it is estimated that only about 500 actually reach
the ground before vaporizing.3
Constellation. In three-dimensional space, most of the stars we see have little
relation to one another, but can appear to be grouped on the celestial sphere
of the night sky. Humans excel at finding patterns and throughout history have
grouped stars that appear close to one another into constellations. The sky is
currently divided into 88 Constellations. Constellations usually nave names
(usually from mythology). Astronomers use constellations to designate
directions in space; for example the great galaxy "in Andromeda" lies
in the direction from us marked by the pattern of stars we call Andromeda (the
Princess of Ethiopia in Greek mythology).24
Some
constellations can be seen only from the Northern Hemisphere and some only from
the Southern Hemisphere. The constellations of the Zodiac can be seen from both
hemispheres.
Some constellations
can be seen only from the Northern Hemisphere and some only from the Southern
Hemisphere. The constellations of the Zodiac can be seen from both hemispheres.3
Comet- a small object in space that moves round the Sun and has a bright head
and a long tail.People now look forward with interest to
sighting a comet, but for many centuries comets were believed to have an evil
influence on human affairs; in particular, they were thought to foretell
plagues, wars, and death. It was once thought that comets were made of vapor
and had risen from the Earth. It was not until the 17th century that they began
to be properly understood. In 1682 a comet appeared and was observed by the
astronomer Edmond Halley. He studied the written accounts of 24 comets that had
been seen from time to time since 1337 and calculated their orbits. He found
that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 moved in almost the same paths, and he
concluded they were all the same one and that it would return in about 1758.
Orbit -
The closed path of a satellite
about a primary; a complete trip of a satellite about its primary; the act of
placing a satellite into orbit.
Spacecraft - a vehicle
designed for flight beyond the Earth's atmosphere.
Space capsule – “a vehicle which may carry people or
animals, and travels into space to obtain information and then comes back to
the Earth.”
Space station – a large space-craft that are in space for a
long time and act as a base for scientific tests, etc.
Space shuttle – “a vehicle for carrying people and supplies
between the Earth and a space station; carrying people into space to do
scientific experiments, put satellites into space, etc.”
Space-craft – “a vehicle able to travel in space.”
Satellite - a body that is
in orbit around a primary.
Micro satellites – a small craft that track and follow other
satellites. This technology could prove useful for military (anti - satellites)
missions if it were able to maneuver close enough to the target to disrupt or
destroy it.
Rocket – “a tube-shaped object that
is driven to the air by burning gases and is used for traveling into space.”
Rockets can be used as a weapon.
Rocket launcher – “a
machine, carried by hand or on a vehicle, for sending up military rocket-type
bombs.”
Astronaut
- a United States spacecraft
pilot or crewman.
Cosmonaut - a Soviet spacecraft
pilot or crewman.
Space Weapons - damage causing mechanisms
actually based in space. 4
Weaponisation- It is the use of the arms in space in order to destroy something. It’s a
general term that is used to characterize activities that countries have
undertaken for nearly 60 years.9
Militarisation is a process
of improving intelligence and military operations in order to strengthen the
powerful abilities of the objects.
Anti-satellite weapon - any
device specifically designed to destroy a satellite or interfere with its
functioning (even can be based on the Earth).
Space commercialization– a program
refers to the use of space for commercial purposes. Current examples of this
activity are satellite communications: television and radio, GPS (Global
Positioning System), satellite navigation. It also includes human activities in
space such as space tourism, satellite manufacturing, micro-gravity science,
and research and development.
Space debris - all man-made
objects in Earth orbit, including their fragments and parts, which are
non-functional or destroyed.
The
history of astronomy or how the peoples’ interest to space has been developing
In this part of our work we want to dwell upon the
history of astronomy to show how great peoples’ interest to the space, and how
it developed was. The space era began not so many years ago, but a great number
of people had been interested in space since the earliest times. As witnesses
of this there is Stonehenge in England and Arkaim in the Chelyabinsk Oblast, in Russia.They are the ancient proofs of the man’s
existence and of the development of the ancient science and peoples’ interest
to the space. They are silent witnesses of the changes that had been happening before the
book was invented.
From the
earliest times people were interested in space because they didn’t know
anything about it and thought that their Gods lived there. It was something
mysterious and beyond their understanding.
Later on space and the stars, especially,
were used to predict weather, even the future.
Then people as
they usually did tried to use space as the source of some natural recourses and
that was the beginning of civilian use if the universe. Just together with it
military man understood all the advantages of using space. But we’ll discuss
this question a little bit later.
·
5000 BC: Mesopotamian
civilization
In many early
civilizations, astronomy was sufficiently advanced that reliable calendars had
been developed. In ancient Egypt astronomer-priests were responsible for
anticipating the season of the annual flooding of the Nile River. The Mayas of
the Yucatan peninsula developed a complicated calendar for keeping track of
days both in the past and in the future. They could use their calendar to
predict astronomical events.3
·
2500 BC
and 2000 BC:
England
Stonehenge is a Neolithic
and Bronze Age
megalithic
monument
located near Amesbury
in the English
county of Wiltshire,
about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. It is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting
of large standing stones and is one of the most famous prehistoric
sites in the world. The Neolithic observatory
at Stonehenge allowed for observation of 15 astronomical phenomena using 22
elements. The precision of measurements in Stonehenge is estimated at 10
arc-minutes to a degree.
In
2006 the anthropologist Lionel Sims published in the "Cambridge
Archaeology Journal" arguing that the Stonehenge double alignment on the
southern standstill moonsets and the winter solstice sunsets was true of
hundreds of prehistoric monuments, and was part of an emerging solar religion
that both preserved and displaced a more ancient respect for the moon.16
·
14th century BC:
China
In China, a
calendar had been developed by the 14th century BC. A Chinese astronomer, Shih
Shen, drew up what may be the earliest star catalog, listing about 800 stars.
Chinese records mention comets, meteors, large sunspots, and novas.3
· 17th century BC: the Southern Urals steppe
Arkaim is an archaeological site situated in the
Southern Urals
steppe, 8.2 km north-to-northwest of Amurskiy, and 2.3 km south-to-southeast of
Alexandronvskiy, two villages in the Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, just to
the north from the Kazakhstani border.
The site is generally dated to the 17th century
BC. Earlier dates, up to the 20th century BC, have been proposed. It
was a settlement of the Sintashta-Petrovka culture, associated with
Indo-Iranians (citation needed).
The similarity of latitude, date, and size led
some archaeoastronomists (Bystrushkin 2003) to compare
Arkaim with Stonehenge
in England. The contemporaneous observatory at Arkaim allowed for observation
of 18 astronomical phenomena using 30 elements. The precision of measurements
in Arkaim is estimated at 1 arc-minute to a degree. The interpretation as an
observatory for either Stonehenge or Arkaim is not universally accepted.12
·
276?-194 BC:
Greece
The early Greek
astronomers knew many of the geometrical relationships of the heavenly bodies.
Some, including Aristotle, thought Earth was a sphere. Eratosthenes, born in
about 276 BC, demonstrated its circumference. Hipparchus, who lived around 140
BC, was a prolific and talented astronomer. Among many other accomplishments,
he classified stars according to apparent brightness, estimated the size and
distance of the moon, found a way to predict eclipses, and calculated the
length of the year to within 6 1/2 minutes.3
·
AD 127: Greece
The most
influential ancient astronomer historically was Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus)
of Alexandria, who lived in about 140 AD. His geometric scheme predicted the
motions of the planets. In his view, Earth occupied the center of the universe.
His theory approximating the true motions of the celestial bodies was held
steadfastly through the fall of Rome to the end of the Middle Ages.
In medieval times Western
astronomy did not progress. During those centuries Hindu and Arabian
astronomers kept the science alive. The records of the Arabian astronomers and their
translations of Greek astronomical treatises were the foundation of the later
upsurge in Western astronomy.
Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic
name (al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i.e. "The Great Book") of a mathematical and astronomical
treatise
proposing the complex motions of the stars and planetary paths, originally written in Greek
as "Mathematical Treatise", later titled "The Great
Treatise" by Ptolemy
of Alexandria,
Egypt.
The date of Almagest
has recently been more precisely established. Ptolemy set up a public
inscription at Canopus in Egypt in 147/148 C.E.
Hence Almagest cannot have been completed before about C.E. 150,
a quarter century after Ptolemy began observing. Its geocentric
model was accepted as correct for over a thousand years in Arab and European
societies. The Almagest is our most important source of information on ancient Greek
astronomy3
·
1st millennium of
the Christian era: Maya
The Dresden
Codex, written by the Maya during the 1st millennium of the Christian era,
contains astronomical calculations--eclipse-prediction tables, the synodic
period of Venus--of exceptional accuracy. Temples and pyramids in what are now
Mexico and Guatemala were often constructed and aligned with attention to
astronomical phenomena.3
·
1543: Poland and
Italy
In 1543, the year of his death,
came the publication of Copernicus' theory that Earth and the other planets
revolved around the sun. His suggestion contradicted all the authorities of the
time and caused great controversy. Galileo supported Copernicus' theory with his
observations that other celestial bodies, the satellites of Jupiter, clearly
did not circle Earth.14,6
·
1546-1601:
Danmark(Brahe Tycho)
Danish
astronomer; created new epoch in astronomy by improvements in astronomical
observation
The great Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe rejected Copernicus' theory. Yet his data on planetary positions were
later used to support that theory. When Tycho died, his assistant, Johannes
Kepler, analyzed Tycho's data and developed the laws of planetary motion. In
1687, Newton's law of gravitation and laws of motion reinforced Kepler's laws15.
·
1634: Germany
'Sleep', a moon-trip
fantasy by German astronomer Johannes Kepler, is published.15
·
1800
The development
of the spectroscope in the early 1800s was a major step forward in the
development of astronomical instruments. Later, photography became an
invaluable aid to astronomers. They could study photographs at leisure and make
microscopic measurements on them. Even more recent instrumental
developments--radar, the radio telescope, and space probes and manned
spaceflights--have helped answer old questions and have opened our eyes to new
problems.
We can see that the interest in space began its development already in 5000
BC. People from all parts of the world tried to research expanses of universe.
A lot of countries contributed their share in the development of astronomy: England,
China, Russia, Egypt, Greece, Poland, Italy, Denmark, Germany
and others. And after the knowledge was enough the first man stepped in to
space.
The History of Man in Space
From
Dream to Reality
Before the
XVIIIth century people only observed the space with telescopes,
calculated distances between planets, some facts they knew and could explain
but others they simply thought out. Since the XVIIIth century man tried to use
stored knowledge, did some broadcasts, so did all to fly into space. Their
notions and real knowledge were mirrored in books: scientific and fiction.
While on the subject of fiction books a lot of authors tried to predict the
future. And sometimes their notions were realized in future. The new science,
which is called astronautics, appeared.
·
AD 160
Lucian of Samosata,
Greek satirist, writes 'True History', the first fictional account of a trip to
the moon.
·
1634
'Sleep', a moon-trip
fantasy by German astronomer Johannes Kepler, is published.
·
1865: France
Jules Verne, French
author, writes classic novel 'From the Earth to the Moon'.
·
1869: France
Jules Verne, French
author, writes classic novel 'Around the Moon'
·
1900:Russia
Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky of Russia
evolves the idea of large piloted rockets.
·
1919
Robert
H. Goddard, professor at Clark University, publishes 'A Method of Reaching
Extreme Altitudes'.
·
1923
Hermann Oberth,
German mathematician, publishes 'The Rocket into Interplanetary Space'.
·
1926
Goddard fires first
liquid-fuel rocket.
·
1938-44
Germany develops V-2
rocket weapon.
·
1945-49
German V-2 parts shipped to United
States and Soviet Union; United States starts rocket program; first shot into
space made in 1949, the beginning of
Cold War between the USSR and the USA.
·
1957
Soviet Union
launches Sputnik 1, first man-made Earth satellite, and Sputnik 2, which
carries a dog, Laika, the first space traveler.
·
1958
United States
launches its first satellites, Explorer 1 and Vanguard 1.
·
1959
United States
recovers monkeys unharmed after space flight; Soviet probe Luna 1 becomes first
artificial body to escape Earth's gravitational field, fly past moon, and enter
an orbit around sun as an artificial planet; Soviet probe Luna 2 crashes on
moon; Soviet probe Luna 3 sends back first photographs of far side of moon.
·
1960
United States
launches television-equipped satellite, Tiros 1, to photograph the Earth's
cloud cover. United States makes first recovery of satellite that has been in
orbit.
·
1961
First human
(A.Gagarin) sent into space, by the Soviet Union, orbits Earth; United States
astronauts make first suborbital space flights.
·
1962
First United
States astronauts make orbital flights; X-15 rocket plane penetrates outer
space; communications satellite Telstar 1 orbited; United States Mariner 2
passes Venus.
·
1964
Soviet Union
orbits three cosmonauts in Voskhod 1, first multipassenger spaceship.
·
1964-65
United States
probes Ranger 7, 8, and 9 crash into moon but transmit excellent close-range
photographs of moon's surface.
·
1965
Soviet
cosmonaut is first man to walk in space. United States orbits Gemini 3, the
first maneuverable manned spaceship; Gemini 6 and 7, first to rendezvous in
orbit.
·
1966
United States
Gemini 8 spacecraft docks with Agena rocket. Soviet Union Luna 9 makes first
soft landing on moon and transmits first photographs taken on moon's surface;
United States spacecraft Surveyor 1 makes soft landing on moon.
·
1967
Soviet Union
Venera 4 makes first soft landing on Venus.
·
1968
First
lunar-orbital flight, made by United States astronauts in Apollo 8.
·
1969
United States
astronauts are first humans on the moon.
·
1972
First Jupiter
probe, Pioneer 10, launched by United States.
·
1973
Skylab, United
States satellite laboratory, put in orbit; United States launches Mariner 10 to
obtain first close-up photographs of Mercury.
·
1976
United States
probes Viking 1 and 2 make first soft landings on Mars.
·
1980
United States
Voyager 1 becomes first spacecraft to fly past Saturn.
·
1981
First test
flight of a reusable space vehicle, the United States space shuttle Columbia.
·
1983. First
mission of United States space shuttle Challenger; Spacelab, a European-built space laboratory
module, is carried into space in a joint United States-European space mission;
United States Pioneer 10 becomes first man-made object to pass beyond the known
limits of the solar system.
·
1986
United States
Voyager 2 flies past Uranus; Mir, an advanced type of space station, put in
orbit by Soviet Union; first flybys of a comet made by group of five
international probes.
·
1988
Launch of space
shuttle Discovery marks
first United States space shuttle mission since Challenger explosion in 1986.
·
1989
Voyager 2 flies
past Neptune; space probe Galileo flies past Venus.
·
1990
Hubble Space
Telescope launched. Galileo flies past Earth. Magellan flies past Venus through
May 1991. 3
·
December, 1995
ESA and NASA launched Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory (civilian) to investigate the Sun and small comets and other
objects near the Sun.
·
February, 1996
The USA launched Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous
(NEAR) (civilian) to study the asteroids and comets. NEAR is the first of NASA's
Discovery missions.
·
November, 1996
The USA launched Mars Global Surveyor (civilian)
to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material,
internal properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and
climate of Mars.
·
January, 1998
The USA launched Lunar Prospector (civilian) to
investigate the Moon, to measure magnetic and gravity forces of it, to make a
map of its surface.
·
July, 1999
Chandra X-ray Observatory (civilian) to detect
the objects that give off X rays.
·
March, 2000
Image (civilian) to study the global response
of the Earth's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind. It was the first
weather satellite for space storms.
·
January, 2003
The ESA launched Rosetta (civilian) to
investigate comet Wirtanen and some asteroids.
·
September, 2003
Japan launched Lunar – A (civilian) to learn
more about the Moon's interior structure.
·
October, 2003
China launched Shenzhou V (civilian).It was the
1st flight of China astronaut.
·
October, 2005
China launched Shenzhou VI (civilian). It was
the 2nd flight of China astronaut
·
September, 2006
Russia launched Soyuz – TMA9 (civilian) for delivery
of the new crew to the ISS (International Space Station).
·
December, 2006
France and Russia launched Sputnik (civilian) to
investigate stars and planets that nave small sizes.
·
December, 2006
Germany and Russia launched Russian “Kosmos” Rocket (military). The
first of five satellites designed to provide radar imagery, and is the first
satellite ever for the German military31.
We researched how people’s interest in space
has been developing. So we can see that since ancient times a man has been attracted
by expanses of universe. With the coming of astronautic era the dream of
leaving the Earth became the reality. With the little step on the Moon's
surface mankind did a very big jerk in the future. And of course sometimes fiction was realized some
predictions became true. Here we want to analyze Jules Verne’s classic novel
'From the Earth to the Moon'. It produced a kind of a boom at his times.
Jules
Verne's''Round the Moon''-Facts and Fiction
1. Jules Verne supposed that people in
spaceships could eat usual food
Because of zero gravity they could not eat
usual food in the projectile at all.
Weightlessness is the experience (by people and
objects) during freefall, of having no apparent weight. This condition is also
known as microgravity. Weightlessness in common spacecrafts is not due to an
increased distance to the earth; the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude
of, say, 100 km is only 3% less than at the surface of the earth.18
If the astronauts tried to eat their usual
food, their food would fly in the spaceship.
Jules Vern was mistaken about the behavior of
the substances in the space. Today they use the method of sublimation to keep
the food fresh - the change from solid to
gas without passing the liquid state.17
2.The author didn’t have any notions about the behavior
of airless space and he did not surmise about the difference of the pressure in
the space and in the projectile.
Pressure is everywhere.Outer space
is a very hostile place. Because of the very low pressure in outer space humans
have to be trapped in a spacesuit in fear of the boiling of their bodily
liquids. The fluids would not be able to evaporate entirely primarily because
of the rapid loss of heat energy.
In outer space one would also face
extreme changes in temperature. The temperature in the sunlight is 120 °C,
which is higher than the boiling point of water. In the shade the temperature
is about -100 °C, way below the freezing point of water. The body tissue
(skin, heart, other internal organs) would expand because of the boiling fluids7.
If they opened the hatch, the air
would leave the projectile immediately, and people would be frozen.
Nowadays, the scientists worked out the atomic plant for the
utilization in spaceships. The rubbish is put in to the special module and when
the plant goes through the atmosphere, the module is burned down with the
rubbish.
3.Jules Verne believed that the temperature in
the outer space was 70-80 degrees Fahr. below zero.
-70 degrees Fahrenheit = -57 degrees Celsius22
According to Vern, the space temperature was
close to the Moon’s temperature. The Moon's temperature in the sunlight is 120 degrees
Celsius and in the shade the temperature is about
-100 °C. The first measuring of the Moon`s temperature was in 1915 by Petitt18
4.Verne described the very strange
occurrence of oxygen poisoning.
Jules Verne described the real event, hyperoxia
(O2 supersaturation or "Paul Bert effect") by name.
Hyperoxia -
1. An excess of oxygen in tissues and organs.
2. A higher than normal oxygen tension, such as that produced by
breathing air or oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressures20.
But this event was described and proved only in 1878 by French physiologist and
politician Paul Bert/19
5.The author believed that on the moon there
were no twilights and night changed day promptly.
1.
There
are twilights on the Moon. They are just like solar ones, but much colorless.
2. 212 degrees Fahrenheit = 100 deg. Celsius22
The first measuring of The Moon`s temperature
was made in 1915 by Petitt:
at the afternoon: 125 deg. Celsius
at the midday: -175 deg. Celsius9
6.Jules Verne described the lunar night that
lasted, in his opinion, 354 hours.
The real continuance of the Moon's night is
327,8604 hours. 21
Some coincidences.
The projectile took off
peninsula Florida, where a century later the first space to the moon
"Apollo-8", started also with three astronauts on board (21.12.1968).
It was the first spaceship, which flew round the Moon.26,10
The projectile was the same size as
"Apollo-11" did. (16.07.1969). see the pictures.27
After the flight to the Moon Jules Verne's projectile touched down in
the Pacific Ocean, only 3 miles from the place, where in 1969 the American
spaceship "Apollo-11" with Armstrong Neil Alden, the first men on the
Moon touched down. 28Some research workers are sure these couldn’t
be only the coincidences.
|
|
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“Apollo-11.”11 Verne’s
picture.
Jules Verne really predicted some great
phenomena in his book ''Round the Moon'': the missile principle of moving, the
Moon's temperature, "Paul Bert effect" and the continuance of the
Moon's night. But some his notions were wrong: the travelers must have died; he
was wrong with the behavior of airless space, space food, the Moon's twilights,
rubbish in space, and Moon's attractive power.
And
what all the scientists would do without the astronauts.
Some
Notable Astronauts and Cosmonauts
There are few among us that did not wonder in
awe about what it would be like to be an astronaut in a child. Space
exploration will forever peak humanity’s interest and curiosity. The prestige
of visiting outer space belongs to a proud few, but as technology develops,
more and more people will have the opportunity.
The Federation Aeronautique International
states that a man or a woman officially becomes an astronaut upon reaching an
altitude of over 100 miles. As of March 30, 2006, 443 people have crossed this
imaginary line. Efforts to learn more about space are widespread. Since the
astronaut Yuri Gagarin made his pioneering exit out of our atmosphere, men and
women from 35 countries have joined his notoriety.
Since the infancy of human presence in space,
18 astronauts have died on missions, and 10 more from launches. Despite this,
our interests remain strong and our minds stay determined. We found out more
about outstanding astronauts and their roles in the development of space.
Aldrin, Edwin E.,
Jr. (born 1930). American.
During 1966 Earth orbit in Gemini 12 with James Lovell, Jr., set record for
extravehicular activity with a 5 1/2-hour space walk. Accompanied Neil
Armstrong and Michael Collins on 1969 Apollo 11 mission and became second
person, after Armstrong, to set foot on the moon.
Bean, Alan L. (born 1932). American. Participant in 1969
Apollo 12 lunar landing mission with Charles Conrad, Jr., and Richard Gordon,
Jr. Commander of 1973 Skylab 3 mission, with crew Owen Garriott and Jack
Lousma.
Beregovoy, Georgi
T. (born 1921). Soviet. Pilot
of 1968 Soyuz 3 Earth orbital mission; completed Soviet Union's first
rendezvous in space during maneuvers with Soyuz 2.
Bluford, Guion
S., Jr. (born 1942). American.
First African American in space; participated in 1983 space shuttle Challenger
mission (STS 8) with Richard
Truly, Daniel Brandenstein, William Thornton, and Dale Gardner.
Borman, Frank (born 1928). American. With James Lovell, set
flight endurance record of 330 hours 35 minutes during 1965 Earth orbit in
Gemini 7; craft made first successful space rendezvous upon joining Gemini 6.
In 1968, with Lovell and William Anders, made first manned flight around the
moon in Apollo 8.
Cernan, Eugene A.
(born 1934). American.
Participant in 1966 Gemini 9 Earth orbital and rendezvous mission with Thomas
Stafford. Served on 1969 Apollo 10 lunar orbital mission with Stafford and John
Young. Commanded 1972 Apollo 17 lunar landing mission, with crew Ronald Evans
and Harrison Schmitt. Deputy director of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (completed
in 1975).
Conrad, Charles,
Jr. (born 1930). American.
With L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., set flight endurance record of 190 hours 56 minutes
during 1965 Earth orbit in Gemini 5. Command pilot on 1966 Gemini 11 Earth
orbital mission with Richard Gordon, Jr.; Gemini 11 set record manned orbit of
850 miles altitude. Spacecraft commander of 1969 Apollo 12 lunar landing
mission, with crew Richard Gordon, Jr., and Alan Bean. Commander of 1973 Skylab
2 mission, with crew Joseph Kerwin and Paul Weitz.
Cooper, L.
Gordon, Jr. (born 1927).
American. One of the original seven United States astronauts. In 1963 circled
the Earth 22 times in Faith 7 (Mercury 9), last of the Mercury manned space flights.
Command pilot of 1965 Gemini 5 Earth orbital mission, with crew Charles Conrad,
Jr., during which flight endurance record was set.
Garneau, Marc (born 1949). Canadian. Became first Canadian to
fly in space when he participated in 1984 space shuttle Challenger mission with Robert Crippen, Jon McBride, Sally
Ride, Kathryn Sullivan, David Leestma, and Paul Scully-Power.
Glenn, John H.,
Jr. (born 1921). American. One
of the original seven United States astronauts. In 1962, in Friendship 7
(Mercury 6), became first United States astronaut to orbit Earth.
Grissom, Virgil
I. (1926-67). American. One of
the original seven United States astronauts. In 1961 suborbital flight of
Liberty Bell 7 (Mercury 4), became second United States astronaut to travel in
space. Became first man to return to space and with John Young made first
manned Gemini flight around Earth in 1965. Killed with Edward White and Roger
Chaffee in flash fire during 1967 simulation of Apollo 1 launching.
Komarov, Vladimir
M. (1927-67). Soviet. With
Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov, participated in 1964 Earth orbital
mission in Voskhod 1, the first craft to carry more than one person into space.
During 1967 Earth orbit in Soyuz 1, became first Soviet to make two space
flights; became first person to die during a space mission when Soyuz 1
parachute lines tangled during attempted landing.
Leonov, Aleksei A. (born 1934). Soviet. During 1965 Earth orbit in
Voskhod 2 with Pavel Belyayev, became first person to walk in space. Commanded
1975 Soyuz 19 mission, with crew Valeri Kubasov; Soyuz linked with United
States Apollo craft--the first docking of two spacecraft from different
nations.
Lovell, James A.,
Jr. (born 1928). American.
With Frank Borman, made record-breaking 1965 endurance flight in Gemini 7 and
participated in first successful space rendezvous. Accompanied Edwin Aldrin in
1966 Gemini 12 Earth orbit. In 1968, with Borman and William Anders, made first
manned flight around the moon in Apollo 8. Commander of aborted 1970 lunar
landing mission of Apollo 13 with crew Fred Haise and John Swigert, Jr.
Ride, Sally K. (born 1951). American. Became first American
woman in space when she participated in 1983 space shuttle Challenger mission with Robert Crippen, Frederick Hauck,
John Fabian, and Norman Thagard. On 1984 Challenger mission, with Crippen, Jon McBride, Kathryn
Sullivan, David Leestma, Marc Garneau, and Paul Scully-Power, became first
woman to fly in space twice.
Romanenko, Yuri
V. (born 1944). Soviet. In
1987, as mission commander, stayed aboard Mir space station for then-record 326
days. This record was broken in 1988 by Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov, who
stayed aboard the Mir space station for 366 days.
Savitskaya,
Svetlana Y. (born 1948).
Soviet. Became second woman in space when she served on 1982 Soyuz T-7 Earth
orbital and docking mission with Leonid Popov and Aleksandr Serebrov. Became
first woman to walk in space during 1984 Soyuz T-12 orbital and docking mission
with Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Igor Volk.
Schirra, Walter
M., Jr. (born 1923). American.
One of the original seven United States astronauts. Manned Sigma 7 (Mercury 8)
during 1962 Earth orbital mission. Command pilot on 1965 Gemini 6 mission with
Thomas Stafford; craft made first rendezvous in space. In 1968 commanded Apollo
7 Earth orbital mission--the first manned Apollo mission--with crew Donn Eisele
and R. Walter Cunningham.
Shepard, Alan B.,
Jr. (born 1923). American. One
of the original seven United States astronauts. During 1961 suborbital flight
of Freedom 7 (Mercury 3) became first United States astronaut to travel in
space. Commanded 1971 Apollo 14 lunar landing mission, with crew Stuart Roosa
and Edgar Mitchell.
Sullivan, Kathryn
D. (born 1951). American.
Became first American woman to walk in space when she did so during 1984 flight
of space shuttle Challenger,
with Robert Crippen, Jon McBride, Sally Ride, David Leestma, Marc Garneau, and
Paul Scully-Power.
Volkov, Vladislav
N. (1935-71). Soviet. Remained
in space for record-breaking 24 days during 1971 Soyuz 11 mission with Georgy
Dobrovolsky and Viktor Patsayev; Soyuz crew created first manned orbital
scientific station by docking with Salyut 1 space station; Volkov, Dobrovolsky,
and Patsayev died during reentry when the space capsule developed a leak.
White, Edward H.,
II (1930-67). American. During
1965 Gemini 4 Earth orbit with James McDivitt, became first United States
astronaut to walk in space. Killed in 1967 with Virgil Grissom and Roger
Chaffee during simulated launch of Apollo 1.
Yeliseyev,
Aleksei S. (born 1934).
Soviet. Accompanied Boris Volynov and Yevgeniy Khrunov on 1969 Soyuz 5 Earth
orbital mission; transferred in flight from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. Participant,
with Vladimir Shatalov, in 1969 Soyuz 8 Earth orbital and rendezvous mission.
Participated in 1971 Soyuz 10, Salyut 1 rendezvous mission with Shatalov and
Nikolai Rukavishnikov.
Young, John W. (born 1930). American. Most space flights.
Pilot on 1965 Gemini 3 flight with Virgil Grissom. Command module pilot on 1966
Gemini 10 Earth orbital and docking flight with Michael Collins. In 1969
orbited moon in Apollo 10 with Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan. Commander of
1972 Apollo 16 lunar landing mission with Charles Duke, Jr., and Thomas
Mattingly. In 1981 commanded first space shuttle mission with crew Robert
Crippen. In 1983 commanded joint NASA and European Space Agency mission that
carried Spacelab 1 into space.
The list if the
astronauts is not finished yet. There are many more of them.
The Use of Space. Civilian or Commercial and Military.
Nowadays people use space with maturity in two
ways: military or civilian (economic/commercial, scientific etc.). Every day
scientists find new ways of using the space. Every year more and more countries
want to explore and use the space: not only the USA and Russia, but China, the
European Union (ESA and some individual member states), Japan, India, Ukraine
and Israel.
As space technology progressed after World War
II, a curious development occurred. From the research that produced the rocket
motors, liquid propellants, space suits, and other necessities of space flight
emerged by-products that no one had anticipated. These were unexpected
applications--in medicine, industry, and the home--for materials, equipment,
and services that had been created for use in space. Such by-products are
called spin-offs or fallout. Only a few of hundreds can be named here.
Boons to Medicine
Perhaps the best-known examples of spin-offs
are found in hospitals and
doctors' offices. Some of these stem from space medical research. Many are
adaptations from other areas of space technology. Typical of spun-off
implements is a sight switch
that permits some disabled people to operate devices they could not otherwise
use. They do this by using their eye movements to interrupt a light beam.
Another device, which was developed to enable astronauts to steer
spacecraft by voice command, can be used to help the retarded learn to speak,
the deaf to speak more clearly. The device permits users to compare the
oscilloscope trace of their voices with a trace of the desired sound.
Microminiature electronic components--required because spacecraft devices must be small and light and use
little power, yet be very rugged and durable over a relatively long period of
time--have made many instruments available to doctors and their patients.
There are now hearing aids, not much larger than aspirin tablets, that
are worn entirely within the ear.
A television
camera the size of a cigarette
package is mounted on the surgeon's head to give students a close-up view of an
operation. Other small cameras, equipped with flexible light-transmitting
devices, take pictures inside such body organs as the stomach.
Biotelemetry, which
was developed to monitor the temperature, brain-wave activity, breathing rate,
and heartbeat of astronauts, offers a new means of monitoring hospital
patients.
Biosensors attached to the body send data by wire or radio. This information may
be displayed on oscilloscopes for doctors to analyze. It can also be fed into a
computer that "watches" the patient and sounds an alarm if the
results indicate that he requires medical assistance. Some biosensors, called
endoradiosondes, can be implanted in the body. The tiny batteries that power
them can be recharged by radio waves.
The search for a better insulating material for rocket- propellant tanks
produced a plastic polymer gel with the density of human fat at body temperature. Used as a padding
for bedridden patients, it prevents bedsores. Aerospace scientists in England
developed a special bed which enables burn patients literally to float on a
cushion of air. The burns heal more quickly because they do not rub against
bedclothes.
The scientists who developed the Surveyor lunar probe found that they
could make the pictures that the Surveyor was designed to photograph clearer by
using a specially-designed computer to control printing. This technique, when applied to X-ray
pictures taken in various fields of medicine, reveals anatomical details that
were previously invisible with conventional X-ray technology.
The requirement for small, accurate, and rugged timing devices in
spacecraft led to the development of a very small tuning fork that vibrates at
360 cycles per second, some 144 times as fast as the balance wheel in a
conventional watch. The device is now a component of highly accurate
wristwatches that run for a year on a battery as small as a dime.
Fiberglass materials
for rocket-fuel tanks are now employed to make lightweight, high-strength
storage tanks, railway tank cars, and highway tankers. A magnetic hammer that
originally served to eliminate small imperfections from metal surfaces of the
Saturn V rocket is being adapted for use in the automotive and shipbuilding
industries.
Hundreds of other items could be mentioned:
an
aluminized plastic blanket
that can be folded small enough to be carried in a pocket;
a cooler-smoking tobacco pipe, lined with a material developed for nuclear
rocket engines;
an ultrasonic testing device that can reveal hidden earthquake damage in
masonry structures;
and an improved caulking compound for tiles, derived from sealants used in
spacecraft.
One of the most valuable contributions of aerospace technology to
industry in general is a management technique called the systems approach, or
systems engineering. With the aid of computers, this technique brings together
all the elements of a complex project--people, money, materials--so that
everything is ready at the optimum time. It has been applied to a variety of problems
unrelated to space exploration. Among them are cancer research, hospital design
and management, city planning, crime detection and prevention, pollution
control, building construction, and transportation.
In the 1980s advances in electronics--themselves a spin-off--allowed
industry to take advantage of aerospace computer software. Automobile
manufacturers used a computer program called the Structural Performance and
Design program to design improved car bodies. Programs used to train astronauts
to meet contingencies during Spacelab missions were used to train fire
commanders to make decisions and allocate resources under pressure. This
system, called Emergency Management Computer Aided Training (EMCAT), uses a
desktop computer and laser disc player to display a burning building. The
display responds--the building is consumed in flames or the fire is
extinguished, for example--according to the trainee's decisions. EMCAT is
similar to having a pilot trainee use a flight simulator.
The experience gained from developing NASA spacesuits was applied in the
process of designing clothing for use in other professions. Firefighters now
have lighter, less bulky breathing apparatuses and special
"fireblocking" materials that are more resistant to cracking and
burning. Spacers used for ventilation and cushioning in moon boots were adapted
for use in athletic shoes that are designed to reduce fatigue and injury.
The military use of space .There are many countries that have got their
own military programs they are: the USA, the Russian Federation, China, the
European Union (ESA and some individual member states), Japan, India, Ukraine
and Israel 13,25,23,33,8
1983 in May, Ronald Reagan proposed to use space-based
weapons to shoot down intercontinental ballistic missiles (Strategic Defense
Initiative (SDI)). It was supposed to protect the USA from missile attacks. The
SDI satellites would track a missile from liftoff, and shoot it down with
lasers before the missile cleared the air space of the country from which it
was launched. “Star Wars” program caused some international criticism. People
were not sure that this system would be used only in purpose of security.
1991, the United States used sophisticated
satellite technology to pinpoint Iraqi targets during the Persian Gulf War.
Intelligence-gathering satellites gave the American forces an unprecedented
view of the battleground, showing every move that the Iraqi armies were making
during the war.
Since the times of the
Cold War, militarization and weaponization of space has become very “popular”
all over the world. The USA and the USSR have made this a competition. Today many
countries try to use space in military way. “Space-based weapons are possible
for any state with the economic and technological capability to manufacture and
launch ICBMs or rockets capable of putting satellites into orbit, and to
control the actions of missiles and space objects from the ground.
Theoretically, this could include the following states: the USA, the Russian
Federation, China, the European Union (ESA and some individual member states),
Japan, India, Ukraine and Israel. 4
2007, January 11, China successfully tested a direct
assent anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon. So, China has both security and military
concepts in outer space. So, we can see that even China (the country that for a
long time was against weaponization of space) started to take part in the arms
race in outer space. The technology that it used can be also used by other
countries. So, people really start to think about their defense. Not so long
ago new notions as “space-based defense”, “space-based defense programs”,
“space security” appeared.
“Governments do
not make decisions to ”weaponize” space . But they do make policies and
strategies, establish organizations and create programs to develop and deploy
systems to bolster deterrence, strengthen defenses and increase military
efficiencies. … are people against placing weapons in space?
Moral, military
and strategic contexts make a difference. To ask some one to consider whether
they’re in favor of putting weapons in space is different from asking that same
person whether he would support basing interceptors in orbit to intercept
long-range ballistic missiles to protect his city. Indeed, when asked about
whether they want a missile defense, polls have consistently shown over the
past two decades that the American people support such defenses. It is also
quite a different thing to ask a person whether he would support the
development of a weapon, a tool, to physically knock out a satellite that had
uncovered the positions of our sons on uniform, who happened to be concerned in
some dangerous valley in Afganistan. Who would not favor removing the threat?
Second there is
the historical context to consider. Critics of expanding the military uses of
space are wont to make a clean-cut distinction between ”militarizing” space, on
the one hand, which they say already has happened, and” weaponizing” space on
the other, which they say has yet to occur.” Steven Lambakis4 rises a
question that doesn’t have a
definite answer. Each position has its pros and cons and it is quite difficult
to choose at once and to take a stable position. That is just a question “to be
or not to be”.
Conclusion.
“Space is the most
fragile environment that exists because it has the least ability to repair
itself” Joel R. Primack (cm) People started to make use of space, but they didn’t think about the consequences. Many countries do this:
China, the European Union (ESA and some individual member states), Japan,
India, Ukraine and Israel. 34
We can say all countries try to win the competition
“citius, altius, fortius”. They create many space-based weapons and space
equipment, and the question of our future is becoming more and more acute. They
are creating space defense programs in order to be on the safe side but what if
the countries are trying to build “the Time Machine”?
Bibliography and Internet
Resources.
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1.The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton
Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company |
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2.C.A. Lyahova – “The popular History of Astronomy and Cosmonautics” –
Moscow: “Veche”, 2002, p. 474] |
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3.Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia-Interactive- |
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4.James Clay Moltz
“Future Security in Space: Commercial, Military, and Arms Control
Trade-Offs” – Monterey: “Monterey Instituti of International Studies”, 2002 |
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5.Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, 1994] |
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6.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus |
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7.http://hypertextbook.com/facts/ |
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8. http://www.astronautix.com/articles/chidoors.htm |
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9. http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1180546 |
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10. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/home/index.html |
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11.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Command/Service_Module |
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16.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge#Archaeoastronomy_and_Stonehenge |
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20.http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/hyperoxia |
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24.http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/14/14.html |
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26.http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/apollo/AS08/a08facts.htm |
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27.http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/apollo/AS11/a11facts.htm |
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28.http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/apollo/AS11/a11sum.htm |
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34. http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/arms/mcdougall2-en.asp