CRITICAL ISSUES FORUM

BENCHMARK I

SPACE: FORUM FOR COOPERAION OR NEXT FRONTIER FOR WMD PROLIFERATION

The Author: Zhanna Prasolova

Form 10A
Municipal Linguistic Gymnasia № 164

The Teacher-Advisor: Nelli Porseva

The Teacher of English
Municipal Linguistic Gymnasia № 164

Zelenogorsk

Krasnoyarsk Region

Russia

2007

INTRODUCTION

The aim of my work was to produce definitions of space terminology, explore possible motivations, that drive people interest into space, develop my background knowledge of people interaction in space, possible ways of using it (civilian or military) and research some types of technologies, that could be necessary in learning and using space.

MY REPRESENTATION OF SPACE AND UNIVERSE

DEFINITIONS OF SPACE TERMINOLOGY

MILITARIZATION, WEAPONIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF SPACE

SPACE SECURITY

Sometimes it is rather difficult to give a definition to the words, which we use in our everyday life. So, everybody knows what television, radio, the Internet, even space, the Universe are, but only few people can explain them competently. According to Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, Explanatory Dictionaries of the Russian Language, different books on astronomy and some Internet Recourses, [see the sum of bibliography], we found out or created our own definitions of all space terminology that we may use in the CIF project.

SPACE - a part of the structure of the Universe. The distant of space can be filled by physical objects. In addition, space has great resources, which people can use in their interests: in civilian or military ways. There are two kinds of space: space in vicinity of the Earth (the atmosphere of the Earth) and outer space (the world of stars and galaxies; any location outside the Earth's atmosphere).

Speaking about space, we should mention such notions as:

absolute space - physical space independent of what occupies it;

phase space - (physics) an ideal space in which the coordinate dimensions represent the variables that are required to describe a system or substance; "a multidimensional phase space";

mathematical space, topological space - (mathematics) any set of points that satisfy a set of postulates of some kind; "assume that the topological space is finite dimensional";

aerospace - the atmosphere and outer space considered as a whole. [41]

GALAXY (a former name for `galaxy' is ‘extragalactic nebula' [27]). We belong to Milky Way Galaxy. “Our own galaxy, the rim of which we see as the “Milky Way,” is about 100,000 light-years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness. It is shaped like a spiral, with several arms coming off a central bulge (called the core). When we see the bright band of stars across the night sky (especially easy to see in the summer), we are seeing one of the arms of the Milky Way galaxy. Overall, all that you can see in the sky belongs to our galaxy—a system of roughly 200 billion stars.” [35]. There are billions of galaxies in the observable Universe. Typical galaxies contain 10 million to one trillion or more stars. Galaxies are separated from each other by enormous stretches of empty space. “They may be spiral in shape (like a Catherine-wheel), elliptical (like a foot-ball), or irregular.” [23]. Nowadays astronomers try to research how and exactly when galaxies were formed. Most galaxies external to our own require a telescope or photography to see clearly. So, GALAXY - a world of stars, planets and other space objects, held together by gravitational forces. Galaxies are the basic building blocks of Universe. [45]

UNIVERSE was made from Latin “universum” combined into one from “unus” - one + “versus” - turned. In the first half of the 20th century, the word universe was used to mean the whole spacetime continuum in which we exist, together with all the energy and matter within it. [18]

Universe is all space and everything that exists in it. [1, p. 1441; 1994]. We understand Universe as the entire world around us that is endless in time and air, has different shapes of matter; everything belongs to Universe, all things people have, they take from Universe and overall, humans are the integral part of Universe.

COSMOS – the whole Universe considered as an ordered system [1, p. 287; 1994].

STAR – a celestial luminary that can be seen as a small bright point of light in sky at night.

SUN – a burning star in space, around which planets of our solar system move.

CONSTELLATION. In three-dimensional space, most of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but can appear to be grouped on the celestial sphere of the night sky. Humans excel at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into constellations. The sky is currently divided into 88 Constellations. Constellations usually nave names (usually from mythology). Astronomers use constellations to designate directions in space; for example the great galaxy "in Andromeda" lies in the direction from us marked by the pattern of stars we call Andromeda (the Princess of Ethiopia in Greek mythology). [29] So, CONSTELLATION is a group of stars seen from the Earth (especially at the night).

PLANET – a large matter body in space that moves round a star (in our Galaxy planets move round the Sun). The planets are very small compared to the space between them. There are the eight official planets (Mars, Earth, Venus, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) and Pluto in our solar system. [39]

ASTEROID - a small dense object orbiting the Sun.

METEOR – “a small piece of matter floating in space that starts to burn if it falls into the Earth’s atmosphere”. [1, p. 836; 1994].

METEORITE (“sky stone”) – “object (usually not very big), which can fall down to the Earth from the space”. [9, p. 474; 2002]; “a meteor that has landed on the Earth without being totally burnt up”. [1, p. 836; 1994].

COMET – a small object in space that moves round the Sun and has a bright head and a long tail.

POSSIBLE MOTIVATIONS THAT DRIVE PEOPLE’S INTEREST IN SPACE

People have been always interested in the things, which are unusual, unknown, mysterious, enigmatic etc. Therefore, it is the first reason of human interest of the space. The space (and the Universe in the whole) may be the most unknown thing for people’s mind.

People were afraid of space, because they didn’t know what they were to expect. That’s why they studied space to save humankind from possible natural disasters.

We all live in space and we should know our home. Overall, it is human nature to explore. It is the second reason. In addition, space can help us to look at our planet from the other point and to learn it not from the Earth, but from the other side. Thus, people understand space can give them new possibilities and people would like to get them.

People try to use all recourses, which the nature gives them, so people understand that they also can use space, according to their needs. There are two possible ways of using space: civilian and military.

Historically, space has been used for peaceful purposes. But it was the most visible battlefield during the Cold War, yet its battles were those of science and engineering, not guns and bombs.
Dating back to the height of the space race and Cold War, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (more commonly called the Outer Space Treaty - 1967), stated that, "The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries (Article I)." [19]; “The Moon and other celestial bodies can be used only in peaceful purpose by all countries that participated in this Treaty. (Article IV)”. [11, p. 146; 2001].

Throughout recent history, there have been two thoughts on space; one way of thinking about space is that it is for peaceful exploration for the benefit of all mankind, as stated in the Outer Space Treaty. The other way of thinking about space, however, is one put forth by the military, where space is the next battlefield and whoever controls space - controls the Earth.

SPACE SCIENCES

It was very difficult to learn space. There have always been various difficulties in this activity. First, the Religion was against people’s interference in space. Sometimes people didn’t have good equipment for research. It was not so easy for people to reform their mind, to get over different old principles, traditionals. Nevertheless, people have been trying to do it step by step.

Nowadays there are some sciences, which investigate space. Some of them are:

Astronomy – (from Greek “astron” – a star; “nomos” – a law) – the science about the Universe, which investigates motion, structure, extraction and development of space objects. [9, p.469; 2002].

Out-of-atmosphere astronomy– a science, which makes different research about space objects with the help of equipment, which is situated outside the Earth atmosphere. [9, p.469; 2002]

Out-of-galaxy astronomy– a section of astronomy, which investigates space objects, which are situated outside Milky Way galaxy. [9, p.470; 2002]

Astronautics – a science about the flight to space. [6, p. 34; 1962].

Cosmogony –– a section of astronomy, which investigates origin of space and its subjects (from Greek “kosmogonia” – the space; “gone” - birth). [9, p.472; 2002]

Cosmology – studies of the Universe in general, based on the results of astronomic researches. [9, p.472; 2002]

Cosmonautics – a sum of sciences and sections of technologies, which investigate and master space for human needs. [9, p.472; 2002]

As I see, the most important sciences in learning space are Astronomy and Cosmonautics. Many scientists call Astronomy the most ancient science. F. Angeles proves that it appeared with the beginning of the economic people’s activity. When early people hunted, stars illuminated them the way. [7, p. 7; 1984]. The science of Cosmonautics appeared not so long ago, but research in this science helps us to understand how we can use space according to our needs and interests.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PEOPLE’S CONCEPTS OF SPACE

In ancient times, Greek philosophers thought that there was the Great Chaos before Space. That’s why they deified Space. Space is the Greek word and it means “beauty” and “order”. [7, p. 5; 1984].

For the first time all knowledge of the sky and space was just different signs, like different depictions of the weather.

The most ancient scientific astronomical work was written in nearly I – II thousand years B.C. It is an ancient “The Book of Hymns” (“Rigveda”). But there are some facts (different ancient rock paintings and huge stone constructions), which can be an evidence that astronomical people’s activity could already be in IV thousand years B.C. [9, p. 7; 2002]. Human knowledge about the space was formed as an original science only in the II century B.C. Astronomical knowledge had come mostly from Egypt, Babylon, and ancient India. [7, p. 8; 1984] Cleostrat Tenedotsky (VI century B.C.) is called the first astronomer-observer. He observed the sky from the mountain Ida (the Crypt Island). According to these observations, he created the poem “Astrology”. [9, p. 85; 2002].

Some scientists thought that early people knew some secrets, which people cannot understand today. For example, people cannot guess the riddle of the ancient observatories like Stonehenge in the South England (the II thousand years B.C.), Due–Rock in France or astronomical complex of four constructions in Washactoon, America; Calleninsh, Scotland [7, p. 8; 1984] [9, p. 5, 68; 2002].

All first presentations of space were based on mythology. In VII – V centuries B.C. people surmised that the principle of cyclic, uniformity and circular shape and motion is the base of the structure of the Universe. [7, p. 12; 1984].

Some Greek scientists thought that there was nothing outside our galaxy (“our space”). Some thought that other galaxies (“another space”) could be there, but they also had the same structure. [7, p. 17; 1984].

So, from those times people began to learn space from scientific point of view.

REPRESENTATION OF SPACE FOR DIRRERENT PERIODS

PERIOD OF TIME	NATION		PICTURE OF SPACE STRUCTURE	EXPLANATION
Ancient times	anthropomorphous view	Egyptians		The Earth is the lying god, the Sky is the goddess (her body is covered by stars), there is god Mau between them (a symbol of judicious principles, that rule the World). The boats are the symbols of sunrise and sunset.
	not anthropomorphous view	Indians		The Earth is endless plane surface (P’RTHOVI). The Sky is the blue firmament covered by stars (VARUNA).There is luminous air between them (DYAUS).
		Greek		The Earth is plane. The Sky is the hollow firmament.
		Romans		The Earth (Terra) is plane. The Sky (Coelum) is the firmament.
V – IV centuries B.C.	theoretical (mechanical) model	Greek		Filolay. The Pifagor system of the world. The Earth, other planets and even the Sun turn around “The Central Fire”.
V – IV centuries B.C.	theoretical (mechanical) model	Greek		Heraclites Ponteisky. The Sun can be the center of orbiting some planets (especially Venus and Mercury).
				Aristotle. The centre of the Universe is the Earth. The Sun and the planets are orbiting around it.
				Ptolemy. The principal system of the world. The Earth is static and is situated in the center of the Universe. The planets move around the Earth following the spherical orbits.
XVI – XVII centuries	heliocentric system	Pole		Nikolay Copernicus. The Sun is the centre of the Universe. All the planets, including the Earth, move round the Sun. The celestial bodies move uniformly and circularly.
	compromise system	Dane		Tycho Brahe. The Earth is static; it is the center of the World. The Moon and the Sun are moving around the Earth. Other 5 planets are moving around the Sun.
	heliocentric model of the Universe	German		Iogann Kepler. Spheres of the planets are blended with the system of right polyhedrons.
	vortical model	France		Rene Deckart. He thought that there was nothing in the World but moving matter. Solar System is one of the vortexes of the world matter, the center of which is the Sun. There is nothing behind the borders of the World.
XVIII – XX century		English		Thomas Rait. The Universe is the sum of spheres around the centre. The center is the place of God, the sphere of Paradise is the closest to the Centre, the next is the sphere of people, then the sphere of Hell. The Universe has borders.
nowadays				The planets are orbiting the Sun. The Sun is the center of the Solar system. The Universe is made up of many Galaxies, the Universe doesn’t nave borders.

[the pictures were taken from # 7 and 39]

THE MOST OUTSTANDING ASTRONOMERS

NAME	LIFETIME	IDEAS AND ACTIVITIES
Anacsimandr	ancient Greek	The Earth is isolated in space.
Heraclites Ponteisky	In V – IV centuries B.C.	The Sun can be the centre of turning around some planets.
Aristotle	384 – 322 B.C.	He tried to explain the structure of the Universe from the scientific view. Space is a large quantity matter sphere, which are connected with each other. According to his theory the world was consist of 56 spheres. The Universe is huge air without a centre and any borders. He criticized the theory that the Earth lean on some ancient heroes of Atlanta.
Eratosthenes	276 – 164 B.C.	The Earth is the globe. He computed the dimensions of the Earth.
Giordano Bruno	1548 – 1600	The Sun is only a star and other stars are independent from it. The Universe is endless in time and doesn’t have any borders. All celestial bodies can change.
Galileo	1564 – 1642	He built the first telescope with the help of which he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter. He mentioned that there are groups of stars in “Milky Way” and some other nebulae parts of sky. He criticized the fact that all stars were believed to be situated on one sphere. He presented the surface of the Moon. In 1633 he was brought before the Inquisition in Rome and forced to deny his claim that the Sun was the centre of the Universe
Isaac Newton	1643 – 1727	He explained the motion of the planets round the Sun and the motion of the Moon round the Earth from the scientific point of view. He discovered the Law of Gravity.
Christian Hugens	1629 – 1695	He discovered the Ring around Saturn.
Immanuel Kant	1724 - 1804	There is dependence of celestial bodies on their weight. There is no principal difference between planets and comets. The Universe has its beginning, but it will develop forever. Life can be also on other planets.
William Hershel	1738 - 1822	He discovered Uranus, its moons and two moons of Saturn. He defined the motion of the Solar System to the Hercules constellation.
Gavriil Tikhov	1875 - 1960	He created the new science – astrobotany that investigates the possible life on other planets. He proved that there used to be plants on Mars.

One of the greatest scientists of the XX century was Sergey P. Korolyev. He is still very popular, because his work was very important in cosmonautics. Not so long ago a TV serial “Battle for Space” about his work was shown. It was devoted to the 100^th birthday of S.P. Korolyev. This serial is international. It was created by the 4 national channels of Russia (The First Channel), America (National Geographic Channel), UK (BBC) and Germany (NDR).

This serial shows us the influence of the Cold War on the exploration of space.

The USA and the USSR were really fighting for the space leader position. Each country had its genius. S.P. Korolyev was a Russian scientist; Verner fon Brown (German by birth) was working for Americans. Two countries were interested in space, they thought that the first country that subdued space would “win” the Cold War. So, the interests of two great countries were met. The countries started the “game”. Therefore, this serial shows the first interaction in space in all details.

FIRST INTRODUCTION IN SPACE

DATE	EVENT
October, 1957	The launch of the first artificial satellite “Sputnik”.
November, 1957	The launch of the second satellite with the dog Laika on it.
January, 1959	The launch of the interplanet station “Luna - 1”.
September, 1959	The first space station “Luna – 2” stand up on the Moon surface.
August, 1960	The launch of the space-craft with the dogs Belka and Strelka on it.
April, 1961	The first flight of a man in space: U. Gagarin.
March, 1965	Leonov’s outer space walk
July, 1969	Armstrong’s Moon walk

SOME TECHNOLOGIES/DEVICES PEOPLE HAVE USED IN SPACE EXPLORATION

PERIOD OF TIME	NAME	DEFINITION
Ancient times	Gnomon	A device that was used by Egyptians and Greek to determine moments of equinox and solstice.
Middle Age	Astrolabya	A device that was used to determine locations of the Sun, the Moon and other celestial bodies.
	Armilla	A device that was used to determine angles.
nowadays	Telescope	A device that is able to investigate celestial bodies judging by its electro-magnetic radiation. There are different types of telescopes.
	Radio telescope	A device under researching, which would measure the gravitation sensing and radio waves of the Universe and which can help the humankind to create a map of the Universe.
	Altazimut	A device that is used in astronomy to determine altitudes and azimuths of celestial bodies.

KINDS OF OBJECTS THAT HAVE BEEN PUT INTO SPACE:

1. Satellite
2. Space – Craft/ Spaceship
3. Space Capsule
4. Space Station
5. Space Shuttle
6. Rocket
7. Space - based Ballistic Missile

SATELLITE/MOON. “As long as our own Moon was the only moon known, there was no need for a general term for the moons of planets. But when Galileo Galilei discovered the four main moons of the planet Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call them “satellites” (from the Latin satelles, which means attendant)”. [32]. There are two types of the satellites: artificial (made launch into orbit around the Earth by people; more than 8,500 human-made satellites orbit the Earth) and nature. Some astronomers insist on using the word "moon,'' like a notion the Earth's natural satellite exclusively. [29].

We understand an artificial satellite as a man-made body that revolves around the Earth or another astronomical body; a device that circles high above the Earth for some purpose.

A moon is a small natural (celestial) object that orbits another larger one.

Different satellites have different missions:

Speaking about satellites, we think we should mention such notions, like:
orbit – circular, exclusive way, following to which stars, planets and other space objects, including manmade Earth’s satellites move. [6, p.35; 1962]

Low Earth orbits (LEO) – “about 80 kilometers (km) to 2000 km above Earth. Includes: military intelligence satellites, weather satellites.”
Geosynchronous orbits (GEO) – “36,000 km above Earth. Includes: commercial and military communications satellites, satellites providing early warning of ballistic missile launch.
Medium Earth orbits (MEO) - between LEO and GEO. Includes: navigation satellites (Navstar, Glonass).”
Molniya orbit – “a highly elliptical orbit with a 12-hour period. Includes: communication satellites for regions near the North Pole.” [42].

apogee – the most distant point of an orbit from a centre of this orbit [6, p. 35; 1962]
perigee – the closest point of an orbit to the Earth. [6, p. 35; 1962]
trajectory – a line of a flight. [6, p.34; 1962]
special caution zone - an area in space, in which satellites are present and in which special measures shall be undertaken in accordance with the Agreement.
anti-satellite weapon - any device or component of a system specifically designed, tested or deployed to disrupt, degrade, impair or destroy a satellite.

MICROSATELLITES – a small craft that track and follow other satellites. This technology could prove useful for military (anti - satellites) missions if it were able to maneuver close enough to the target to disrupt or destroy it.

SPACE-CRAFT – “a vehicle able to travel in space.” [1, p. 1271; 1994].

SPACESHIP – a space-craft for carrying people through space.

SPACE CAPSULE – “a vehicle which may carry people or animals, and travels into space to obtain information and then comes back to the Earth.” [1, p. 1271; 1994]

SPACE STATION – a large space-craft that are in space for a long time and act as a base for scientific tests, etc.

SPACE SHUTTLE – “a vehicle for carrying people and supplies between the Earth and a space station; carrying people into space to do scientific experiments, put satellites into space, etc.” [1, p. 1271; 1994]

ROCKET – “a tube-shaped object that is driven to the air by burning gases and is used for traveling into space.” [1, p. 1138; 1994]. Rockets can be used as a weapon.

ROCKET LAUNCHER – “a machine, carried by hand or on a vehicle, for sending up military rocket-type bombs.” [1, p. 1138; 1994].

There are too many man-made objects in space nowadays. It is rather difficult to name all of them. During my lifetime (since February, 1991) more than 200 (and maybe even more) launches occurred. Hundreds of satellites were launched in space; many space stations were put in it. Some of them (maybe the most important and popular) are in the following table.

OBJECTS THAT HAVE BEEN PUT INTO SPACE IN MY LIFETIME

NAME	KIND	LAUNCH DATE	COUNTRY OR ORGANIZATION	PURPOSE
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory	Civilian	December, 1995	ESA and NASA	To investigate the Sun and small comets and other objects near the Sun.
Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR)	Civilian	February, 1996	USA	To study the asteroids and comets. NEAR is the first of NASA's Discovery missions.
Mars Global Surveyor	Civilian	November, 1996	USA	To investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.
Lunar Prospector	Civilian	January, 1998	USA	To investigate the Moon, to measure magnetic and gravity forces of it, to make a map of its surface.
Chandra X-ray Observatory	Civilian	July, 1999	USA	To detect the objects that give off X rays.
Image	Civilian	March, 2000	USA	It is the first weather satellite for space storms. It is to study the global response of the Earth's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind.
Rosetta	Civilian	January, 2003	ESA	To investigate comet Wirtanen and some asteroids.
Lunar - A	Civilian	September, 2003	Japan	To learn more about the Moon's interior structure.
Shenzhou V	Civilian	October, 2003	China	It was the 1^st flight of China astronaut.
Shenzhou VI	Civilian	October, 2005	China	It was the 2^nd manned flight of China.
Soyuz – TMA9	Civilian	September, 2006	Russia	Delivery of the new crew to the ISS (International Space Station).
Sputnik	Civilian	December, 2006	France and Russia	To investigate stars and planets that nave small sizes.
Russian “Kosmos” Rocket	Military	December, 2006	Germany and Russia	The first of five satellites designed to provide radar imagery, and is the first satellite ever for the German military.

Some man-made objects can be destroyed in space. Therefore, there is debris in it.

DEBRIS – the remains of something.

SPACE DEBRIS - all man-made objects in Earth orbit, including their fragments and parts, that are non-functional or destroyed.

WEAPON – “anything used to fight with.” [1, p. 1484; 1994].

SPACE WEAPON - any device or component of a system specifically designed, tested, or deployed to disrupt, degrade, impair or destroy a satellite or another space object, or an object on the Earth, but from space.

We think that following things can be used as Space Weapon (for example):

DIRECTED ENERGY is a technology that is related to the production of a beam of concentrated electromagnetic energy or atomic or subatomic particles.

LASER - any device that can amplify optical radiation by the process of stimulated emission.

There are at least three laser systems being developed for either space-based or ground-based weapons. All three are a type of chemical laser that involves the mixing of chemicals inside the weapon to create a laser beam. While a space-based laser system is still about 20 years from being realized, there are three lasers being considered for it, including hydrogen fluoride (HF), deuterium fluoride (DF) and chemical oxygen iodine (COIL).

ANTI – SATELLITE WEAPON - any device specifically designed to destroy a satellite or interfere with its functioning (even can be based on the Earth).

BOMB – any explosive device.

Photo courtesy NASA
The X-33 space plane may be used for military combat in space.

SPACE-BASED BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENSE INTERCEPTORS (SBI) – are devices intended to intercept attacking missiles while the missiles’ engines are still burning. In a 2003 study, the American Physical Society showed that given the technology expected to be available for the next decade, each SBI would weigh a ton or more. So, deploying SBI would be hugely expensive.

PARTICLE BEAM WEAPON – a weapon under research and designing which would be able to fire beams of subatomic particles, at near the speed of light, at a military target, by generating power many times more destructive than any laser in development.

MILITARY SPACE PLANE - space weapon in development. NASA and the Air Force of the USA are trying to develop a space plane labeled the X-33.

WEAPONIZATION OF SPACE – a program refers to putting weapons in space.

We should mention that space weapon can be used not only for military purposes, but also for our Earth defense. For example, with the help of lasers or space-based ballistic rockets, human can defense the Earth from space-debris, asteroids or meteors.

MILITARISATION OF SPACE – a program refers to using space for any sort of military activity. The militarisation of space is the placement and development of weaponry in outer space by the militaries of the world. [en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militarisation_of_space]

Space weaponization is quite different from space militarization. Space militarization includes spy satellites, military uses of the Global Positioning System (GPS), and space weapons systems. Space militarization is broader than and includes space weaponization. [19]. The militarization of space requires space weaponization.

MILITARY USE OF SPACE

SOME MILITARY SPACE PROGRAMMS: WHO USES MILITARIZATION OF SPACE HOW AND WHY

First, the USA and the USSR used militarization and weaponization of space to get leadership positions on the Earth: “Who controls space – controls the Earth.” Therefore, space can become “high field” for battles.

In May 1983, Ronald Reagan proposed to use space-based weapons to shoot down intercontinental ballistic missiles (Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)). It was supposed to protect the USA from missile attacks. The SDI satellites would track a missile from liftoff, and shoot it down with lasers before the missile cleared the air space of the country from which it was launched. “Star Wars” program caused some international criticism. People were not sure that this system would be used only in purpose of security.

In 1991, the United States used sophisticated satellite technology to pinpoint Iraqi targets during the Persian Gulf War. Intelligence-gathering satellites gave the American forces an unprecedented view of the battleground, showing every move that the Iraqi armies were making during the war.

A constellation of satellites orbiting the Earth, known as the Global Positioning System (GPS), was used by soldiers on the ground to determine their bearings.

Since the times of the Cold War, militarization and weaponization of space has become very “popular” all over the world. The USA and the USSR have started this activity. Nowadays some other countries also try to use space in military way. “Space-based weapons are possible for any state with the economic and technological capability to manufacture and launch ICBMs or rockets capable of putting satellites into orbit, and to control the actions of missiles and space objects from the ground. Theoretically, this could include the following states: the USA, the Russian Federation, China, the European Union (ESA and some individual member states), Japan, India, Ukraine and Israel. [31]. But for a long period of time practically only China had been opposed deploying weapons in outer space. “The Chinese government has consistently advocated the peaceful use of outer space and opposed the weaponization of outer space,” said Foreign Ministry spokesman Kong Quan at a regular news briefing. “We do not wish to see any form of weapons in outer space, so we reaffirm that our space flight program is an important element of mankind’s peaceful utilization of outer space.” [26] China had been the major country punishing of a treaty that would prevent the weaponization of space. But on January 11, 2007, China successfully tested a direct assent
anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon. So, China has both security and military concepts in outer space. So, we can see that even China (the country that for a long time was against weaponization of space) started to take part in the arms race in outer space. The technology that it used can be also used by other countries. During his last visit to India (January, 2007) Vladimir Putin expressed Russian point of view commenting this question: “Let us not let jinn out of the bottle”. Many analysts agree that it can badly influence the India space positions. Some politicians suppose that this ASAT test could have been a strategic move by the Chinese to bully the United States into actually discussing such a treaty. But the United States didn’t want to discuss this treaty, because if this treaty becomes real, the USA will be limited in its space activity. But the official US argument against the discussions is that there are no official space weapons programs, there is no space arms race - and therefore no need for a treaty against weaponizing space. But this argument isn’t strong and can be easily refuted.

So, people really start to think about their defense. Not so long ago new notions as “space-based defense”, “space-based defense programs”, “space security” appeared.

SPACE-BASED DEFENSE

It’s a system that means a disposition weapons in space (or on the surface of the Earth, but using of which requires space area) to control or destroy some objects on the Earth for safeguarding of, for example, some state security.

For example, the USA has the whole national system of space – based defence: the National Missile Defense (NMD). This system would provide a sort of protective shield against a limited missile attack. In 1999, the U.S. Congress passed a bill calling for the implementation of the NMD system to defend the United States from a growing number of countries developing long-range missile technologies. The NMD that is being developed now is a toned-down version of the missile-defense system proposed by President Reagan. The United States is working on a ground-based missile-defense system that can respond to a limited missile attack. There are five parts to this NMD system:

1. Upgraded Early-warning Radar (UEWR): a phased-array surveillance radar that can detect and track ballistic missiles.

2. X-band/Ground-based Radar (XBR): a device that consists of a multi-function phased array radar that uses high frequency and advanced radar-signal processing technology. It tracks missiles if they fly closer to the United States. It is equipped with high-resolution radar that allows it to accurately discriminate between closely spaced objects.

3. Space-based Infrared System (SBIRS): a 24-satellite constellation that will start tracking enemy missiles earlier than radar, allowing for quicker response.

4. Ground-based Interceptors (GBIs) include two parts:

Payload Vehicle (PLV) – a device with the help of which flight tests have been conducted.

Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle (EKV) - is the bullet of NMD's weapon system. This device is intended to impact the targeted missile at a velocity of 15,000 mph (24,140 kph). The force of the collision should destroy any ballistic missile, according to defense officials.

5. Battle Management, Command, Control and Communications (BMC3): is the nerve center of the NMD system. It begins tracking the threatening ballistic missile as soon as it is launched by an enemy state. Information about the enemy missile, including trajectory and probable impact point, is relayed to the BMC3 from space-based sensors and ground-based radar.

SPACE SECURITY

It is a sum of activities (may include the space-based defense program) that can guarantee defense in using space in civilian way. Space doesn’t belong to anybody, but it belongs to everybody. Everybody should be confident that if they interact in space they will be safe. There are some projects of the space security; for example increasing public awareness about the dangerous consequences of flight testing and deploying space weapons. Space security offers a pragmatic alternative to space weaponization. There are some treaties and agreements of conduct in space, for example “Model Code of Conduct for the Prevention of Incidents and Dangerous Military Practices in Outer Space” or “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies” and others.

Space can be used in military way by programs of space militarization and weaponization. But people always think about their defense, that’s why there are space-based defense program. Space security guarantees people safety if they use space in civilian way and people try it. There are two points of view on what civilian usage of space means. “One view suggests that “peaceful use” (civilian) means “non-military use”.  In other words, any activities that serve military purposes should not be considered “peaceful use”, no matter whether they are directly involved in military operations.” [33]

Another view is that “peaceful use” includes “non-aggressive use”. Such non-armed activities as satellite reconnaissance, communication, navigation are meant. [33]

The most popular way of using space in civilian way is commercial use of space.

COMMERCIAL USE OF SPACE

SPACE COMMERCIALIZATION – a programm refers to the use of space for commercial purposes. Current examples of this activity are satellite communications: television and radio, GPS (Global Positioning System), satellite navigation. It also includes human activities in space such as space tourism, satellite manufacturing, micro-gravity science, and research and development.

Commercial space technologies have now created global networks that are critical to civilian navigation, remote sensing, weather forecasting, communications, and global financial transactions.

Commercial satellite manufacturing is defined by the United States government as satellites manufactured for civilian government use (not included are satellites constructed for military use, nor for activities associated with any human space flight program). Less than 43 percent of the satellites launched in 2002 for commercial use were manufactured in the United States. Fear of technology transfer to foreign governments prompted a 1999 law which allowed the US State Department to control export licensing of satellite technology. These heightened security measures have, some believe, stifled the commercial growth of satellite manufacturing within the US.

For satellites to operate, they need receivers and transmitters on the ground. The manufacturing of satellite uplink and downlink terminals, consumer mobile satellite telephone units, and direct-to-home television receivers and dishes make up the ground equipment manufacturing sector.

The commercial space transportation industry derives the bulk of its revenue from the launching of satellites into the Earth’s orbit. Commercial launch providers typically place private and government satellites into Low Earth Orbit (LEO). In 2002, commercial space transportation garnered 6.6 billion dollars, which made up 6% of the total gross of commercial space activities. [13].

The space elevator is a proposed new type of space transportation alternative to launching rockets. It would consist of a cable anchored to the Earth's surface, reaching into space. People will use this device as a new way of transportation in space mostly in commercial use.

CONCLUSIONS:

Space doesn’t belong to anybody, but it belongs to everybody. Nowadays people use space in two ways: military or civilian (economic/commercial, scientific etc.)

Militarization of space was started during the Cold War and was used mostly by the USSR and the USA. Nowadays many other countries have such an opportunity: China, the European Union (ESA and some individual member states), Japan, India, Ukraine and Israel. [31]. We can say, that there are the real arms race in outer space today.

Militarization of space is based on weaponization of space. Nowadays people create many different space-based weapons.

But on the other hand, people are afraid of the weaponization of space. Each country thinks that the others can use it against them. Therefore, people want to feel themselves protected. They are interested in space security and space-based defense. Every country has one space-based defense program or a program of militarization/ weaponization of space.

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