CRITICAL ISSUES FORUM
BENCHMARK II
SPACE: FORUM FOR COOPERATION
OR NEXT FRONTIER FOR WMD PROLIFERATION
The Author: Zhanna Prasolova
Form 10A
Municipal Linguistic Gymnasia № 164
The Teacher-Advisor: Nelli Porseva
The Teacher of English
Municipal Linguistic Gymnasia № 164
Zelenogorsk
Krasnoyarsk Region
Russia
2007
“The greatest power available to man
is not to use it.”
Meister Eckhart.
“Humankind got the worldwide ocean (space), which is given to him
purposely to connect people to the whole, to the one family…”
K.E.
Tsiolkovsky
INTRODUCTION
The main aim of my work is to make
a research about people’s interaction in space and approaches to controlling
the use of space: to determine what space programs are and what countries have
them, to investigate some aspects of cooperation/competition of nations in
space, to examine international treaties and agreements, make conclusions of
their efficiency, to find out what things promote cooperation in space, to
investigate the public opinion and its influence on space problems.
SPACE PROGRAMS
The space is a new “high” field for
people’s activities of military, economic, political, scientific and other
domains. All activities of humankind should be controlled and so various types
of space programs have appeared.
Space program – is a sum of arrangements
directed to one purpose, which is depended on the political (military or
civilian) interest of a state in using of space. If a state wants to interact
in space, first it should plan it. The plan of the development of interaction
into space of a state is a space program. As space programs reflect national
political approaches to using space, we can divide them into some groups:
1. space civilian programs:
i.
space exploration
programs
ii.
space commercial
programs
2. military space programs:
i. space
weaponization programs
ii. space
militarization programs
iii.
space-based
defense programs (because it may include weaponization and militarization of
space, for example Strategic Defense Initiative – SDI or, latest, National
Missile Defense –NMD by the USA).
3. space security programs that guarantee safe space civilian flights (we think, that space security
programs should be based on international treaties and agreements).
BENEFITS OF A SPACE
PROGRAM TO SOCIETY
Space programs are useful for
people. Making space programs gives people “products” that make our life easier
and better. Thanks to scientific space programs, we can predict weather (it is
necessary for meteorologically dependant people, who have problems with health
and feel themselves bad if the weather changes abruptly), thanks to commercial
space programs, we can use the Internet, the mobile communication etc. easily
no matter where we are. These things are really necessary for people and we
can’t even imagine our life without them nowadays. Each person is connected
with space. As Clod Bernar – the famous French scientist – has said: “A life of
a separate organism is only a fragment of the life of the Universe”. [1, p. 93;
1974]. K.E. Tsiolkovsky has written: “We live more in space than on the Earth,
because space is infinitely more important than the Earth…” [1, p. 104; 1974]. We are the integral part of
the Universe, of space. Space influences our life and our organism, especially our
health by various types of radiation. For example, Japanese scientist Maki
Takata discovered that the Sun could influence our blood because of some not
good researched sun radiation. [1, p. 100; 1974].
Cosmonautics plays a big role in
understanding and control of the process that are connected with humankind and
its activity.
But in addition it is not so easy
to have space programs. It requires powerful scientific and technical knowledge.
NECESSARY PERSONNEL
Space
programs are planned and developed by people. The people should be very clever,
educated, and have a very good imagination.
[http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/history/history_rsc.html] 
For example, the USSR
space programs during the Cold War were realized only thanks to an outstanding
scientist – Sergey P. Korolyev. He had a good crew, each person of which was a
real specialist. When he died, nobody was able to take his place, even his best
friend and assistant V.P. Mishin.
Theoretical lessons in
Centre of Training of Cosmonauts V.A. Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V. Tkachev “Space cooperation” – Moscow:
“Machinostroyeniye”, 1988
Development of space
programs requires good knowledge of physics, technical drawing, construction
and even biology, anatomy of people-cosmonauts from scientists that are
interested in it.
NECESSARY TECHNICAL
EQUIPMENT
First, the country that is
developing a space program should be ready to get objects in space – rockets
and launch equipment. But developing rockets powerful enough to place for example
satellites into an orbit is a technical challenge; currently, only a handful of
countries have developed this capability. It is also very expensive. ”A typical
number given for the cost per kilogram of launching objects into low-earth
orbit is roughly $20,000 per kilogram ($10,000 per pound).” [2, p. 83; 2005].
That’s why today there is so called “Small Spacecraft Revolution”, because
making spacecrafts smaller enables
them to be cheaper and also faster.
Space programs can be developed only
in those countries that have at least 4 things: space apparatus, launch vehicle,
space-vehicle launching site and command, measuring posts for communication and
controlling with the space apparatus. [3, p. 311; 1987].
V.A. Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V. Tkachev “Space cooperation” – Moscow:
“Machinostroyeniye”, 1988
If a country is not very developed it
is rather difficult and sometimes may be impossible to create and make a space national
program.
But many countries understand that the
space cooperation can help
them to get over these difficulties, so, thanks to it, space programs can also take
place in not very developed countries.
So, the countries can be divided
into two groups:
|
Countries that have
space programs |
Countries that have the potential of
developing space programs |
|
1. Russia 2. America 3. China 4. India 5. Argentina and other Latin America
countries 6. France 7. Germany 8. Japan 9. UK 10. Italy 11. Canada 12. Israel 13. Ukraine and others |
1. North Korea 2. Iran 3. Iraq could develop ballistic missiles, but
if other country had signed different treaties not to develop such programs,
these three countries haven’t done it yet |
So, nowadays, in spite of many difficulties and
thanks to space cooperation or vice versa competition, the majority of the
countries have a capability to make and develop space programs: some of them
can do it thanks to their good status, others just have good politics and can
join more powerful countries to get “a key to space”.
SOME SPACE PROGRAMS
|
COUNTRY |
NAME OF PROGRAM |
TYPE |
PURPOSE |
SOME ACTIVITIES THAT WERE DONE DURING THIS
PROGRAM |
CONSEQUENCES |
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The USA |
Project Mercury
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Civilian |
The USA first
human-in-space program. It was designed to further knowledge about humanity’s
capabilities in space. |
Flight Summary: 6. May
15–16, 1963. L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., performed the last Mercury mission in “Faith 7” to evaluate effects of one day in space |
The USA interacted into space and learned a
lot of information of it. |
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The USSR, Poland, Bulgaria and other
socialistic countries |
Intercosmos
[V.A. Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V. Tkachev “Space cooperation” –
Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1988] |
Civilian: scientific and commercial |
Development and creation of apparatus for space
crafts. The main 5 directions: space physics, meteorology, space biology and
medicine, space communications and investigation of resources of the Earth. |
Creation of scientific technologies,
meteorologist rockets, realization of some experiments and researches; more
than 23 sattelites, 11 investigation rockets (Vertikal) and many
meteorologist rockets were launched. Creation of satellites of new generation –
automatic universal orbital stations – AUOS. |
Providing parties with necessary of phone, telegraph
and radio communications. Making a Council of international cooperation in
researching and using of space connected with Academy of Science of the USSR |
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China |
The space program of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). |
Dual use |
The program was
aimed at developing China’s aviation, rockets and missile defence needs. The
space program was initiated at the behest of the Central Military Commission
for fulfilling national defense needs. The potential military utility of
space was the central reason for China embarking on its national space
program since 1956. |
Launch of the first China satellite – Dongfanghong I in 1970 that was lager
than other space first satellites and had been played a patrotic song in NEO
for 28 days. |
China became the fifth country to put a
satellate in space. China has raised its international status. |
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The USA |
National Missile Defense |
Dual use (but mostly military) |
The missile defense program, which helps to
protect the borders of the state. The aim was to create an effective National
Missile Defense (NMD) system capable of defending the territory of the state
against ballistic missile attack. |
Development of ballistic missiles |
The USA proved its superiority in the military
sphere. But the program wasn’t approved by many people. Because of these
plans the USA seemed to be an aggressive, dangerous state. |
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The USA, the USSR |
“Soyuz” – “Apollo”
[M.F.
Rebrov, L.A. Gilberg “Soyuz - Apollo” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1976]
|
Civilian |
Making the first international project in space
activity: docking and undocking space crafts in outer space. |
Launching of the
soviet space craft “Soyuz-19”:
[M.F.
Rebrov, L.A. Gilberg “Soyuz - Apollo” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1976] Launching of the
American space craft “Apollo”:
[M.F.
Rebrov, L.A. Gilberg “Soyuz - Apollo” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1976]
During this program
the international agreement of making the first international docking were
signed.
[M.F.
Rebrov, L.A. Gilberg “Soyuz - Apollo” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1976]
A.
Leonov and T. Stafford |
The first
international flyght of “Soyuz-19” and “Apollo” was made. G. Ford said: “The
wonderful flight of “Souyz” and “Apollo” proved that there were and must be cooperation
between the USA and the USSR…” |
Some space programs are under
development nowadays. For example – the System of Planetary Defense of the
Earth from the Asteroids developed by Russia. [4]. But we always should
remember that the space program of one country influences others, because space
doesn’t have national political boards.
SPACE COOPERATION OF
NATIONS
Developing of cosmonautics promotes the space
cooperation of nations. Space can give us not only unique possibilities in
economic, scientific spheres, but also in political sphere: in consolidation
friend relations between countries.
Powerful states as Russia and the
USA cooperate with each other to exchange the information between them; small
or poorly developed countries join them and get all the information they need.
So, space cooperation is important for human and is a good means to give all
countries access to modern technologies, science and culture. So, only if we
are together, we can do everything.
There have been and are many international
space programs. The emblems of some of them are here:
V.A. Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V. Tkachev “Space cooperation” – Moscow:
“Machinostroyeniye”, 1988
There are many various organizations that
promote space cooperation in civilian ways. For example, United Nations Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in which 67 countries participate,
Eurospace (the European International Organization on Using of Space), Intelsat
(the International Corporation on the Using of Satellites for Communicational
Purposes), United Nations Committee on Learning Space in Civilian Purposes in
which 53 countries participate: every year it considers the problem of lending
support to other countries to practice space technologies.
Also we can name
international space stations that are the breakthroughs to promote development
of cooperation in space activity. The international space station “Mir” was run
by Russia, but today it is obliterated.
‘MIR’
“Mir” means "peace" and "community"
in Russian. The Mir space station contributed to world peace by hosting
international scientists and American astronauts. It also supported a community
of humans in orbit and symbolized the commonwealth of the Russian people.” [5]. Mir was constructed in orbit by connecting
different modules, each launched separately from February, 20, 1986 to April,
26, 1996.
MIR Manned Orbital Station was a
multi-purpose International Center, was a world-unique space laboratory
intended to check space areas for future manned space stations and complexes.
“Mir” was a real
international station. 125 cosmonauts from 12
countries worked on Mir station. 27
International research programs were made on it.
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INTERNATIONAL
MISSIONS TO MIR STATION |
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1987 |
1988 |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1999 |
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Austria |
1
cosmonaut |
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Afghanistan |
1
cosmonaut |
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Bulgaria |
1
cosmonaut |
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Great
Britain |
1
cosmonaut |
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Germany |
2
cosmonauts |
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ESA |
2
cosmonauts |
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Kazakhstan |
2
cosmonauts |
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Syria |
1
cosmonaut |
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Slovakia |
1
cosmonaut |
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USA |
53 cosmonauts, |
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France |
5
cosmonauts |
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Japan |
1
cosmonaut |
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[http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/mir/mir.html]
During the MIR Station operation,
absolute world records of man's continuous on-orbit stay-time were achieved:
Valery Polyakov - 678 days 16 hrs 33 min (for 2
flights)
Sergey Avdeev - 747 days 14 hrs 12 min (for 3 flights)
Elena Kondakova - 169 days 05 h 1 min in 1995
Shannon Lucid, the USA - 188 days 04 hrs 00 min in 1996.
“Mir” was orbited round the Earth
for 13 years. The costs of this project were really high and became one of the
main reason to de-orbit the station. “On a NASA television broadcast, Mir
commander Viktor Afansyev was quoted as saying, "We undertake this with a
heavy heart and anticipate the future arrival of other crews to renew the work
that we're doing here." “ [6]. Nevertheless, “on December 30, 2000,
Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov signed a resolution calling for Mir to
be sunk into the ocean, early in 2001” (March, 23). [5]. But we can say, that “Mir”
became a legend: it was the largest, the heaviest, it was international, it promoted
cooperation in space, it reflected potential of Russia as a leader in space
activity of humankind.
‘ISS’
Today we have the “ISS” –
International Space Station. The work on the
International Space Station started in 1993, when Russian scientists presented
to NASA Administrator D.Goldin a project to create an International Space
station. “On September 2, 1993, the Chairman of the Russian Federation
Governement V.S. Chernomyrdin and US Vice-president A. Gore signed a Joint
Declaration on Cooperation in Space, which, among other things, envisaged
creating a joint space station.” [7]. It
is led by the USA with 16 nations. When ISS be completed, it will be nearly
four times as large as “Mir”. The ISS is mainly scientific station. It is the largest scientific project in
history of using of space. The
mission of ISS is to be a space laboratory of making various researches to
support humankind exploration of space. A lot of basics and biological sciences
such as: pharmaceutical applications and effects of microgravity on human
physiology are studied on it.
Some of scientific experiments of ISS:
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Life Science |
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Study of microgravity effects on the proliferation of neurons for
animals (crickets) |
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BEANS |
Beans
germination in space |
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SEEDLINGS |
Production of vegetable sprouts in microgravity |
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Utilization of FRTL5 cells as a biological system to measure radiation
and microgravity effects |
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Study of lyophilized cultures and spores in order to evaluate cell
viability and integrity in space |
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Test of survival and the following growth of tendril grafts from vines
coming from the Sassicaia estate in near-earth orbit |
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Research on the performances of the human upper limb in weightlessness |
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Investigation of the role of neurotrophins and specifically of NGF in
the physiopathological manifestation of stress and in pathologies associated
to nervous and immune system disregulations |
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Studies on the subjective vertical behaviour under exposure to
microgravity |
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Evaluation of the orientation of Listing's plane under different
gravity conditions and to examine the unilateral otolith-ocular response
elicited by radial acceleration during post-flight re-adaptation |
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Tasting of food products from Lazio region (Italy) in space |
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Vestibular adaptation to a change of gravity |
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Demonstration of functionality of sensors of a new generation by using
which an intelligent clothing for astronauts, capable of checking their life
functions will be developed |
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Demonstration of peculiar cuts of cloths of new fibers and fabrics for
astronauts. Filling
the questionnaire |
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Technology |
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Acquisition of Flight Navigation data for GPS during a free flight
phase of the Soyuz TMA including its mated flight as part of the ISS |
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Measurements involving cosmic ray in space, their relation to
anomalous phosphene (Light Flash) perception by astronauts, the effect of
different shielding materials to reducing the radiation environment and
characterization of the magnetic environment inside the ISS |
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Verification of the functioning of particular electronic equipment in
the space environment |
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Demonstration of the technology of the electronic nose that detects
odours |
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Study of specular point-like quick reference and ISS image |
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Evaluation of radiation sensitivity of the electronic board after
exposure to microgravity conditions |
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Educational program |
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Study of molecular mechanisms regulating human biology in microgravity
conditions |
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Acquisition of footage for educational purposes, which demonstrates
the electrostatic self-assembly of 3D macroscopic |
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Performance of amateur radio sessions from the ISS with schoolchildren
and students on the ground to increase their interest in space, science and
investigations |
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[http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html]
SPACE PEACE; SPACE
TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS
Since the first
successful launching of an artificial earth satellite great progress has been made
in the exploration and using of space for the benefit of mankind. But since the
beginning of the Cold War people have been started to use space in military
way, because of its unique significance. “Space became an important arena for
the arms race”. [14; p. 48; 2002].
As Harry Truman
has said: “I want peace and I am willing to fight for it.” It is so in the case
of “space peace”. For example, during the Cold War the USSR was fighting for
peaceful using of space and for nonproliferation weapons in space, in spite of
the fact that there are many intercontinental ballistic missiles in the USSR.
We think, that
in case of “space peace” people should fight for peace without using weapons. As
a Chinese proverb says: “To cure a disease, you must have the right medicine”.
The medicine that we can use in this battle can be international treaties and
agreements dealing with space security.
Space programs of each nation should
be controlled by something: by international laws, rules. People have been
making many agreements and treaties, in which the main ideas of “rules of using
space” are, for more than 30 years of people’s history in space. Some international
treaties and agreements that are the most important and interesting for
us are represented in the following table.
|
NAME |
PARTIES |
DATA |
PURPOSE |
|
Agreement on
Assimilation of Space |
NASA, Academy of
Sciences of the USSR |
June 8, 1962 |
To lead some international space works
together, to cooperate in learning space. |
|
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests the in
Atmosphere, Space and Under Water |
The USSR, the USA,
the UK |
1963 |
To prohibit countries make testing explosions
of nuclear and other types weapon in space. |
|
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities
of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and
Other Celestial Bodies |
The USA, The USA, The UK and all other United
Nations |
January 27, 1967 |
The space
exploration should be aimed to the benefit of all countries. It
forbids the stationing of weapons of mass destruction in space. Space “shall
be the province of all mankind.” [26] |
|
Agreement on the Rescue of
Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into
Outer Space - the “Rescue Agreement” |
The majority of countries |
1968 |
To prevent the problem of space debris, to
help and to guarantee astronauts that they will be returned to the Earth |
|
Convention on International
Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects - the “Liability Convention” |
The majority of countries |
1971 |
To make states be responsible for their
activities in outer space. |
|
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty |
The US-Soviet; the USA |
May 26, 1972 |
To making broads of systems of anti-ballistic
missile defense; to prohibit the use of defensive systems that might give an
advantage to one side over the other in a nuclear war |
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Convention on Registration of
Objects Launched into Outer Space – the “Registration Convention” |
44 countries |
1974 |
To prevent the problem of space debris. |
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Agreement Governing the
Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |
The majority of countries |
1979 |
To control space activity, including actions
and plans of nations. |
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Resolution of 39 session of the general
Assembly of the Organization Of the United Nations |
150 states all over the world |
December, 12, 1984 |
“States should abstain from threating of
force or using it in its space activity”. |
|
Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the
Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles |
The USSR, The USA |
1987, it was entered into force on June 1, 1988 |
There were eliminated 2,692
intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles, including 1,846 missiles
eliminated by the Soviet union, and 846, by the USA. It was practically the
first agreement on real reductions of such type of weapons. |
|
Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the
Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START I) |
The USA, the USSR. Then Kazakhstan, Belarus,
Ukraine joined it. |
It was entered into force on December 5, 1994 |
It
reduces and limits usage and deployment of: “ICBMs and ICBM launchers; SLBMs
and SLBM launchers; heavy bombers (HB); ICBM and SLBM warheads and HB
armaments” [28] |
|
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) |
Russia, the USA and the majority of countries |
It is open for signing since 1996 |
It “is a universal
treaty that bans any nuclear explosions, whether for weapons or for peaceful
purposes, at any place, and applies to the nuclear activity of all states
parties without exception (nuclear and non-nuclear). The Treaty is of
unlimited duration.” [28] |
|
Model Code of Conduct for the Prevention of
Incidents and Dangerous Military Practices in Outer Space |
For all countries (Russia, China, France,
Japan, Canada, the USA) |
2004 |
It is a collection
of “rules” of using of space. To make the same right of using of space for
all countries. To prevent proliferation of ballistic missiles and weapons of
mass destruction. To increase cooperation in space |
By the way, we should mention that generally
established principle of international law, which prohibited using of force in
international relations, is put into practice in space as in other spheres of
human activity.
These treaties,
agreements play a positive role in promoting the exploration and peaceful using
of outer space and cooperation of nations. As we think, many of these treaties
are really efficient even nowadays. If there didn’t exist necessary agreements
and treaties, we can imagine that space could become a place where there would
be many different things, debris, satellites, it would become a big “container
full of rubbish” and nobody could control it. But still some of them have
“inherent flaws of loopholes. For example, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty only
prohibits deployment of weapons of mass destruction in outer space, but not
other weapons.” [14, p. 48; 2002].
Any country
would like to put its weapons into space to show others that it is more
powerful than others are, but at the same time, each country would like to be
protected from other country’s space weapons: it takes part in various space
security actions, including making international treaties and agreements. All
in all the problem of the space race is acute nowadays. We think there are only
two reasons of the situation: either treaties, agreements, and other parts of
space security are not enough, or the countries put weapons in space
unofficially and illegally. Nevertheless, we must understand: if you are going
to move left and right at the same time, you can run risks to be torn in parts.
The international treaties help
people to prevent the Space race: for example, in 1981, the General Assembly of
the Organization of the United Nations passed a resolution on the “Prevention
of an Arms Race in Outer Space” – PAROS.
In 2001, China submitted a paper
“Possible Elements of a Future International Legal Instrument on of the
Weaponization of Outer Space” at Geneva-based Conference on Disarmament. This
paper proposed concepts such as: the prohibition of testing, deployment and use
of weapons and weapon system and their parts and components in outer space and
from outer space against targets on land, sea and air. Then Russia joined to
China, and both of countries presented a joint working paper in Geneva in 2002.
The paper focuses on how to solve the problems of the deployment of weapons and
use of force in outer space. This paper would be called “Treaty on the
Prevention of Deployment of Weapons in Outer Space and the Threat or Use of Force
Against Outer Space Objects.” This new treaty should at least include following
aspects:
1.
Not to place in
orbit around the Earth any objects carrying any kinds of weapons, not to
install such weapons on celestial bodies, and not to station such weapons in
outer space in any other manner.
2.
Not to resort to
the threat or use of force against any outer space objects.
3.
Not to assist or
encourage other states, groups of states and international organizations to
participate in activities prohibited by this treaty. [14, p. 49; 2002].
But this paper is still under development, and
it is strange that it hasn’t been signed by the majority of the countries yet.
Who doesn’t let people make it? This question was discussed in Geneva-based
Conference on Disarmament on 13th of February, 2007.
Russia is one of the leaders in
further elaborating this area of international law. But, as we see, many treaties are under
development even nowadays.
So, in spite of the fact
of the beginning of the space race people try to stop it and to make others use
space in civilian ways. People do various activities for it. For example, last
year, in April, an international conference on preventing the militarization of
outer space was in Moscow. President Vladimir Putin in the Organization of the United
Nations had promoted such a conference. The conference was concentrated on two
key topics - averting an arms race in space and promoting the peaceful uses of
space. It was timed to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the first man
spaceflight by Yuri Gagarin. The conference was attended by 260 foreign
participants from 105 countries as well as leading members of the Russian space
establishment. It undoubtedly gave an impetus to the further development of
international space law. Its logo was - space without arms - an arena of
peaceful cooperation in the 21st century. [17].
SPACE AS AN ARENA
FOR COMPETITION BETWEEN NATIONS
In spite of the facts, that there
are a lot of treaties and agreements, most of which are really useful and
working, there are many different space programs of each country, and it can
cause competition in space. The space remains us “a realm of strategic competition
with multiple military and commercial applications” – as the parliamentary
group of France have said. [8]. Just look at the history! There always have
been competition between some countries for space leader positions. Especially
there are many facts, which are reflected in books (see the summary of
bibliography) and films (“Battle for Space” – see Benchmark I, “Unrealized
Dream of Sergey P. Korolyev” and others), about the first competition in space
between the USSR and the USA.
The space competition between the
USA and the USSR was an undeclared space race, because both the USA and the
USSR not only wanted to get the leadership position in space, but also wanted
to have military superiority. It was the competition in which the two countries
were trying to show the first results in space activity to prove the
superiority of their political and economic systems and their way of life
(capitalistic or communist).
Today we can say that the space
race was an important aspect
of the Cold War.
|
the USSR |
TIMELINE |
the USA |
|
The foundation of
space-vehicle launching site “Baiconur” |
1955 |
The USA
announces its plans to launch small unmanned satellites into space |
|
The launch of the
first artificial satellite “Sputnik - 1”. |
1957 |
|
|
|
1958 |
The launching of a
satellite US President
Eisenhower urges the USA Congress to enact legislation to establish a new
civilian-controlled body—the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) |
|
The launch of the
interplanet station “Luna - 1”. The launch
into space the first man-made missile |
1959 |
|
|
The launch of the
space-craft with the dogs Belka and Strelka on it. |
1960 |
The launch of the
first navigational satellite, Transit 1-B The launch of
the first weather satellite Tiros-1 |
|
The first flight of
a man in space: U. Gagarin (‘Vostok – 1’) |
1961 |
Commander Alan
B. Shepard, a US Navy pilot, becomes the second astronaut to make a flight in
outer space |
|
|
1962 |
John Glenn became the first American to orbit
the Earth in Mercury - 6 |
|
The first flight of
a woman in space: Tereshkova |
1963 |
|
|
Leonov’s outer space
walk (20 minutes) |
1965 |
|
|
Crash-landing of
“Soyuz - 1” Vladimir Komarov
died |
1967 |
Space Accident:
Apollo 1: a fire aboard the space capsule on the ground. Three US
astronauts are killed in a fire while training |
|
|
1969 |
First manned Lunar
landing Armstrong’s Moon
walk. The first man on the Moon surface |
|
“Salyut - 1”
disaster in 1971 (kills three) |
1971 |
|
|
1972 – Agreement on
the Cooperation in Investigation and Using Space in Civilian Ways |
||
|
|
1973 |
The launch of
Skylab – the America’s first space station
|
As we understood, the space race
between the USSR and the USA had been lasted for 17 years: 1955 – 1972.
The main aspect of competition of
the Space Race was the first human spaceflight. But it also was the most
expensive action. Although the Soviets won the opening rounds of the Space
Race, but the USA caught up quickly and by the mid-1960s had made records of
total hours of humans in space and other accomplishments. Also the USA launched
the first men on the Moon Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in
1969.
All in all, the USSR and the USA stopped
their competition in space at the beginning of the 70s of XX century with an
international space program “Soyuz” – “Apollo” which was fully supported by
both countries’ leaders.
Once U. Gagarin has said: “We are
the soviet cosmonauts, who were the first people in space, will always glad to
cooperate with scientists on the Universe of any nations, but only in interests
of peace and friendship on our planet”.
In addition, we should mention,
that the space competition also are the main component of the scientific
progress. For example, the same competition between the USSR and the USA has urged
on the first people interaction into space. The Cold War competition caused a
strong interest in science or the mysteries of space that made both countries
to invest the large amounts of resources that they have in their space
programs, and especially in their human spaceflight programs. Who knows when
people would have interacted into space if there hadn’t been such a thing?
The first satellites that the USSR
has launched:
[V.A.
Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V. Tkachev “Space cooperation” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1988]
SCHOOL DEBATE
We have become sure that the
exploration of space grows rapidly and there are many space programs that are
governed by special treaties and agreements especially international.
But we should mention, some people
think that space is free and each nation can do there everything it wants,
that’s why various discussions about the space security are unnecessary and
even space security is unnecessary! Other people think that if each nation can
use space, then it requires control and, certainly, security. We decide to make
a debate on this topic with pupils of the elective English courses. The results
are represented in the following tables.
First of all, we’ve decided to ask
pupils about space activity: Is it necessary for people? Is it useful for them?
What does the interaction into space give us: blessing or harm?
|
PROS OF SPACE EXPLORATION |
CONS OF SPACE EXPLORATION |
|
Forecasting the weather |
It makes more pollution on the Earth and even
in space: Space Debris |
|
GP Systems |
The launches of rockets make holes in the
ozone layer |
|
Mobile Communication |
Space exploration is very dangerous for
people |
|
Thirst of Knowledge |
Space Viruses? |
|
Television/the Internet |
High costs |
|
Space as a new living place: space
settlements because of growing population |
Possible international conflicts about the
measuring of space usage |
|
While exploring space people develop new
technologies which they can use in other spheres of activity |
Weaponization of space, military interest in
space |
|
Possibility of finding other forms of the
Intellect |
|
|
Space can give us the solutions of our
problems (ecological – garbage/the necessity of natural resources) |
|
|
Space tourism |
|
|
|
|
THE NECESSITY OF SPACE SECURITY
|
AGAINST |
FOR |
|
As space belongs to everybody, each nation
can choose the way of using it, and nobody has a right to make borders for
this activity. |
Each nation can use space, but each nation
doesn’t want to suffer from another national space activity even if it is
useful for this nation. |
|
But space security has high costs. |
As space doesn’t belong to anybody, each
nation can do there all they want, but so do others. Then it becomes a
problem, how the interests of each nation meets in space and what will the
results of it? So, we need space security not to have damage results
of people’ space activity, not to have international conflicts on space
activity |
|
Who will control the situation? Who will in
charge? Who will play a role of a judge? These questions can cause new
conflicts. |
All in all, there should be a scheme,
according to which humankind will plane its space activity. |
|
- |
General rules for everyone can make people
sure in their defense |
|
- |
Space security can protect people against
space accidents… |
To crown our debates,
we decided to the one fact: there are some questions about space security that
haven’t got answers yet, maybe because of this system is not very good and
clear yet, but all in all people need such rules, people need protection,
support and surety.
PUBLIC OPINION POLL
We have made an opinion
poll during our work. We tried to research the public position and the public
influence on space problems of nowadays. We asked 60 people (senior pupils,
teachers of our school, relatives and people, who are pensioners) several
questions (see Appendix I). The results of our research are as follows:
Also, we can mention,
that grown-ups, pensioners (elder generation) are more informed of space programs
than other respondents.
All in all, we can say
that people just haven’t got enough information to speak about such problems.
Many people aren’t interested in it themselves, but others think that the
government hides the necessary information from them. Many people are aggressive to this kind of people activity
and say that people are spending too much money on space, and that’s why they
have stopped thinking about the problems we have on the Earth. The public
opinion on what space is, is as follows: more than half of respondents answered
that as they understand space becomes the next frontier of war activity of people.
It is not right and we should change it, but people are not sure in their power
and say that they can’t do anything to change it.
Therefore, the main
result that we have made of this research was that we can and we must prevent
development of space race and we must do everything to make space useful and
defense for people. People are ready to cooperate to change the situation, but
… they don’t know how to do it, the government doesn’t let them know enough,
makes them uninterested in such global problems, makes them aggressive. Only
we, the next generation, can change it, can make our life such one that we
want. We and our governments should make a program on increasing of awareness
of dangerous possible consequences of military using of space, because it is
really important.
CONCLUSIONS
Space exploration and attempts
to use space play a big role in people’s life.
Nowadays space activity
is developing rapidly and there are different space programs that promote it.
Making space programs is a real challenge and not all countries can undertake
it. But as people think that space exploration is very important for them they
try to make it easier and more defensive. Space cooperation of countries help
people on this way. As a part of the program of space cooperation of countries
international space stations appear. Also there are different organizations,
committees that support countries which use space in civilian ways, promote
space cooperation and try to prevent space competition between countries and
space race. On this basis, various international laws and agreements have been
signed. But we should mention that competition of countries in space is an
integral part of progress in using space, because during such competition each
nation tries to prove its superiority and, for example, develop new
technologies.
Nevertheless, there has
been an example of space race in history. It was competition in space between
the USSR and the USA (1955 - 1972) during the Cold War. The end of this space
race was marked by signing of the Agreement
on the Cooperation in Investigation and Using Space in Civilian Ways in 1972.
Peace and our Earth
defense depend on the development of international cooperation in space, and on
prevention of militarization of space and arms race in space. Each person
should understand it. Some people think that it is not their problem, that
people spend too much money and time, draw too much attention to problems of
space instead of thinking and solving the problems we have on the Earth. We
can’t but agree with it, because it is a fact, but we’d like to remember the
words of K.E Tsiolkovsky once more: “We
live more in space than on the Earth, because space is infinitely more
important than the Earth…” [1, p. 104; 1974].
To crown it all, we’d like to say
that our planet is wonderful, though not very big. It is big enough for us to
live in peace, but it is too small to expose it to the danger of nuclear war.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND
OTHER RESOURCES
1.
A.D. Koval, G.R. Uspensky “Space to
Human” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1974.
2.
David Wright, Laura Grego, Lisbeth
Gronlund “The Physics of Space Security: a Reference Manual” – American Academy
of arts and sciences, 2005.
3.
Cosmonautics of the USSR – Moscow:
“Machine Building”, “Planet”, 1987.
4.
www.ruvr.ru
5.
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/shuttle-mir/spacecraft/s-mir.htm
6.
http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/mir/mir.html
7.
http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html
8.
www.space.com
9.
V.A. Alexeev, A.A. Eremenko, A.V.
Tkachev “Space cooperation” – Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1988.
10. V.A. Orlov “Nuclear Nonproliferation. Volume 2” – Moscow:
“PIR-Center”, 2001.
11. V.A. Shatalov “Difficult Ways of Space” – Moscow: “Young
Guards”, 1981.
12. www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/ArmsControl/StarWars.asp#endAuthPageInfo
13. www.infoplease.com
14. James Clay Moltz “Future Security in Space:
Commercial, Military, and Arms Control Trade-Offs” – Monterey: “Monterey
Institute of International Studies”, 2002.
15. S.V. Chekalin “Space: Tommorow’s Work” –
Moscow: “Knowledge”, 1992.
16. www.thespacerace.com
17. www.vor.ru/English/Space/Space_012.html
18. M.F. Rebrov, L.A. Gilberg “Soyuz - Apollo” –
Moscow: “Machinostroyeniye”, 1976.
19. mdb.cast.ru/mdb/1-2007/
20. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast10mar_1.htm
21. http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/
22. http://www.keesings.com/breaking_history/international/nov_22_nasas_mars_global_surveyor_ends_its_career
23. http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/11/05/39145.html
24. http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputorig.html
25. www.space4peace.org
26. www.thespacerace.com/documents/treaty1967/
27. http://techtran.msfc.nasa.gov/at_home.html
28. http://npc.sarov.ru/english/
29. http://chinaconsulate.khb.ru/eng/wjb/zzjg/jks/kjfywj/t189572.htm
30. http://www.stimson.org/pub.cfm?id=106
31. http://www.gwu.edu/~spi/spaceforum/resource.html
Appendix I
1. What can you say about the level of your knowledge
of space and its using?
a. excellent b. good c. not bad d. bad
2. Do you know any space programs? If yes, what
are or were they and who has or had them?
What is the influence of these space programs
on you life?
3. Do you know anything about the space race?
What countries, you think, can take part in it? Do you think that the space
race has already begun?
4. Do you think that humankind should prevent
the space race?
a. it isn’t my problem; I don’t interested in
it
b. I don’t think that it is very serious. There are
more serious problems nowadays that we
should discuss
c. We shall live, we shall see. Other
people d.
Certainly. The space race is a real menace
should think
about this for
all people
5. What things can help people to prevent the
space race?
a. international treaties and agreements
b.
international laws
c. space war
d. stopping all space activity of people
6. What do you think is a role of space
nowadays?
a. the forum for cooperation of countries
b. the next front of war activity
7. How you personally can influence the space
programs to make space useful and defense for people?