Critical Issues Forum

Benchmark 2

Orinda Academy

Orinda, California

United States of America

Contributors

Editors

Jazzy Carlson

Anna Luber

Writers

Allie Smith

Andrew Kastenbaum

Andy Hurrell

Annie Hobbs

Cody Flowers

Collin Spencer

Danny Harmon

Devin Marcus

Eden Castro

Evan Cushing

Fiona Foster

John Oakley

Jeong Moon

Kiera Jeuitt

Kira Condey

Seung Uk Kim

Kyle Drewes

Mat Bohnsack

Michael Stone

Nic Gracia

Petra Wilkinson

Tae Kim

Aiyana Price

Teachers

Bob Shayler

Starfire

Objective/Activity Page

1/2 4-5

1/3 6-9

1/7 10

1/9 11

2/3 12

3/2 13-14

3/3 15

4/2 16

4/6 17

Bibliography 18-19

The Benefits of Space Programs for Society Many powerful nations have their own individual space programs which deal with their prospective advancement in space technology and their plans for space activities. These programs, however, are often in conflict with each other. Nations also have to deal with the difficulty of having to create space programs using only their own resources and their own scientists. Having an international space program would be beneficial for all countries because it would make it easier for nations to collaborate on peaceful space projects which would help alleviate the threat of both military attacks in space and would make it possible for nations to plan for and deal with outer space threats together.

Many nations and their scientists are interested in space exploration. These nations engage in or plan to engage in enterprises such as traveling to the moon and sending space crafts to explore and photograph objects in space and other planets, such as Mars. These endeavors often become competitions between two or more countries to see which country can successfully complete specific accomplishments in space exploration. Experts participate in this competition by comparing the accomplishments of different nations; “Today Russia has 99 satellites on the orbit, while the U.S. has 425 satellites”¹_. While this competitive aspect can give nations an incentive to advance their space exploration more quickly, it also makes countries secretive about the details of their scientific discoveries. If nations were to collaborate on their programs for space exploration then their scientist could work together rather than harboring information from each other. This would make international scientific advancement regarding space much easier and the success of space exploration and the information gathered from that exploration much more prolific.

If nations collaborated on one space program rather than competing with each other it would diminish or eradicate the threat of military attacks in space, for destruction of space technology would be damaging to the overall international space program. Currently many people are worried that space could become a new venue for dangerous military behavior and attacks, such as the use of weapons of mass destruction. Asian Affairs specialist, Dean Cheng, worries about China’s potential military involvement in space technology; “The Chinese space program is an outgrowth of their missile-technology development effort”²_.The concern about violence in space is not an unfounded one, as there is an enormous amount of tension between many powerful nations. The race to become the power in space increases this tension and gives countries a motive to destroy the space technology of other nations. Space is becoming another place in which violent attacks can be executed. This gives war a new element and angle as it brings about a new kind of warfare. In this volatile time, in which there are many technologies that have transformed war and have made it more dangerous, more new types of warfare are the last thing that humanity needs. If nations cooperated on issues regarding space it would alleviate the threat of violence in space, and could help to diminish violence at home as it would create stronger bonds between the powerful nations of the world.

The threat of objects from space is a global issue. Many scientists are worried not only about the threat that we pose to each other in space, but the threat that objects in outer space pose to us. Many countries are trying to create plans of action for dealing with space threats, such as asteroids. It is difficult, however, for scientists to discover much information about these space threats. This makes the already ambitious task of planning the best way to deal with these threats even more difficult. If nations were to cooperate on creating a method for dealing with problems involving space threats their efforts would be beneficial to all people. Scientists from different countries could pool their research in order to gather more information about space threats more quickly and efficiently. Nations could make agreements about helping each other with costs, placement of refuges, and other issues, in the case of damages from asteroids.

Having an international space program could help people and nations scientifically, militarily, and socially. Scientists could work together, rather than against each other on space issues, making their research more efficient. Countries wouldn’t have to worry about warfare in space and would have the opportunity to make stronger bonds with each other, as well as having the security of knowing that they would have help in case of an emergency involving space. Creating an international space program would be a step in the right direction for forming a more peaceful and united planet.

^{2) http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/news/2005/space-050616-rianovosti03.htm}

^{1) http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/news/2005/space-051012-voa03.htm}

Africa:

Nations with Space Programs Africa does not have many space programs to speak of. The only country with a space program is South Africa, which has considered firing a satellite into space. However the government of South Africa has said that while it does have the science and technology to fire a rocket into space, it is not interested in doing so because of the high costs, which South Africa can’t afford to pay right now. They have set up a committee in Pretoria to research space technology and coordinate development.

Australia:

Australia has quite an advanced space program. They were the third country to launch a satellite into space and were also the home of Britain’s first satellite launch into space. The main testing and launching area for satellites and rockets in Australia is Woomera. Woomera is a small town in South Australia that was fist established in 1947 for the British as a testing station for their rocket program. Australia and Britain tested rockets from Woomera from the end of World War II until the 1970s and up until 1972 served as a NASA tracking station. Woomera is a good launch site because of its good weather, low population, a useful infrastructure, and has good access to polar orbits.

In fact many countries have been trying to invest in Australia’s excellent launch conditions especially in the area of Weipa. Unfortunately no one has been allowed to build there, not even the Australian government. This is because the area of Weipa is still owned by the aborigines who still live there and refuse to let anyone build there.

There are also three secret U.S. satellite bases that are located in Australia at Nurrungar, Pine Gap, and the NW cape. These bases were accidentally discovered when a documentary of Woomera was being made. The Australian government then made public images of enclosed satellite dishes and secret U.S. bases that are still operating infra-red and spy satellites orbiting Earth.

Australia has been used for many launches of satellites and test rockets and they plan to expand even further and build more launch pads in the future.

Canada:

CSA (Canada Space Agency), Civilian CSA’s goal is to develop knowledge of space.

China:

China’s main space program is called the China National Space Administration (CNSA). Established as a government institution, the CNSA’s main purpose is, “to develop and fulfill China’s due international obligations, with the approval by the Eighth National People’s Congress of China (NPC).”¹

The 9th NPC assigned the CNSA to become part of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense or the COSTIND. So far, the CNSA has formed and signed governmental space cooperation agreements with the following countries:

² Brazil

² Chile

² France

² Germany

² India

² Italy

² Pakistan

² Russia

² Ukraine

² The United Kingdom ²

² The United States

The Four Departments of CNSA:

² The Department of General Planning

² The Department of System Engineering

² The Department of Science, Technology and Quality Control

² The Department of Foreign Affairs

Europe:

In Europe, there is a program called the ESA (European Space Agency) which is very much like NASA, the space program for the United States. Currently, there are only 17 member states, their mission is “to shape the development of Europe’s space capability and ensure that investment in space continues to deliver benefits to the citizens of Europe.” ³ and using the money and brilliance of these states, they hope to accomplish together what no single European state could accomplish alone.

The members of the ESA are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France (a small note: France has a different space program called the CNES (Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales or the National Center for Space Study⁴) that is primarily civilian. In fact, most of these countries have their own space program; the ESA is simply the unifying space agency for Europe.) , Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, but sometime Canada, Hungary and the Czech Republic participate in the experiments carried out by this organization. You may have noticed that Russia was not included on this list. That is because they have their own space agency which will be talked about later. The ESA has various different branches all over Europe (mostly in Germany) and even some here in the United States. Each branch carries out different tasks to make sure that the ESA functions. For example, one of the branches in Germany, called the European Space Operations Centre, or ESOC for short makes sure that the satellites launched by the ESA stay in orbit. This organization is primarily civilian with its focuses on the exploration of space and earth alike.

India:

The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is India’s main space program. While most nations look to space research for things such as the exploration of planets and moons, the ISRO looks to space research to accomplish more practical means.

"There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation.

To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society. "⁵

India recognizes the importance of applying space research to national problems such as the management of raw materials and national broadcasting. India has come up with two types of space systems to help the nation manage its resources better.

One system, called INSAT, helps to manage communication, television broadcasting, and meteorological services, while the other system, known as the IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellites) system helps with the management of resources, as well as the monitoring of the raw materials and resources.

Japan:

In 2003, October 1st, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) was born. JAXA was created by merging three other space related agencies, the Institute Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL), and the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA). The main goal of JAXA is to bring Japan up to the same footing as other countries with advanced space programs.

The Principle Bodies of JAXA:

² The Office of Space Flight and Operations

² The Office of Space Application

² The Institute of Aerospace Technology

² Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

² The Aviation Program Group

Russia:

Russia has a space program that is all its own. Russia has really been in the space race since 1895 with the first works of Konstantin Tsiolkovskiy’s that were about rockets published in that year⁶ but they didn’t really take off so to speak until November 3, 1957 when Sputnik-2 carrying a dog named Laika was launched⁷. Both the ESA and the Russian Space Program are working together to have more friendly terms between each other. The Russian space program is a military/civilian program dealing with science, missiles and general aviation.

United States:

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), Both

NASA’s goal is to further the United States’ knowledge of space.

Countries with Potential Space Programs:

² Ukraine

² Turkey

² Poland

² Denmark

² Iceland

^{1) http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n615709/n620681/n771918/index.html}

^{2) http://www.techblog.cz/images/cnsa-logo.gif}

^{3) http://www.esa.int/esaCP/GGG4SXG3AEC_index_0.html}

^{4) http://www.cnes.fr/web/455-cnes-en.php}

^{5) http://www.isro.org/about_isro.htm}

^{6) http://www.russianspaceweb.com/chronology_XX.html}

^{7) http://www.russianspaceweb.com/chronology_XX.html}

Intel(R) JPEG Library, version [1.51.13.45] Conflicts in Space within the Media Movies:

² Star Wars

² Independence Day

² Armageddon

² Space Balls

² Space Cowboys

² Apollo 13

² The Fifth Element

² Starship Troopers

² Flash Gordon

² Alien

Television:

² Lost in Space

² Star Trek

² Star Trek Deep Space Nine

² Space Ghost

Star Wars Movie Review:

Out of all the movies that involve conflict in space, Star Wars is by far the most popular. Taking place “a long time ago in a galaxy far far away”, the series of adventures revolves around the struggle for power between good and evil forces for domination of the universe. The storyline shares many elements with classic fairytales including themes of magic and characters of royalty. Luke Skywalker, a young “jedi” goes through a quest to achieve victory in a constant battle during a civil war in space.

Although this tale is quite obviously fictional, there are many elements that we can relate to current and future use of the universe. During the cold war, there was a similar “battle” over space. Although the battle was not one that involved lasers and dog-fighting space shuttles, there was a conflict in the form of a race. This race was to see which country (the United States and the Soviet Union) could go further, faster. In the far future, it is not out of the question that we could see something similar to Star Wars. As technology becomes more advanced, it is very possible that humans could expand to other planets and other galaxies. Something that seems very fictional today could indeed become reality thousands of years from now.

^{1) http://baixaki.ig.com.br/imagens/wpapers/star-wars-episode-3-6800.jpg}

Space Weapons in Use If one nation had an orbiting satellite spying on another. The Nation being spied on could deploy an anti-satellite missile destroying the promiscuous satellite.

A space station could be destroyed if a hijacking occurred.

In case of a hostile alien encounter, weapons on earth and in orbit would be prepared to defend the planet.

Space Cartoons

Total number of Nuclear weapons built by the US from 1951- present: 67,500

Number of Nuclear weapons in stockpile as of 2002: 10,600

"Freedom of action in space is as important to the United States as air power and sea power," the National Space policy asserts in its introduction”³. The Policy encourages private enterprises in space. The policy presents the view that to the US, space power should be seen the same as land or sea power. This stems from the fact that many US corporations are reliant on satellites, for example cell phones, G.P.S. systems, TV and military communications.

^{1) http://cartoonbox.slate.com/hottopic/?image=28&topicid=38}

^{2)
http://cartoonbox.slate.com/hottopic/?image=30&topicid=38}

^{3)
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/17/AR2006101701484_pf.html}

March 22, 1946:

Time Line of Space-Based Defenses First US military missile to leave Earth's atmosphere used.¹

April 6, 1959:

First military space communications wing founded.¹

June 22 1960:

The first US military Satellite to spy on Soviet air radar put into orbit.¹

Aug 18. 1960:

First Satellite to take spy pictures of Soviet Union from Space put into orbit.¹

Oct 17, 1963:

First Satellite to detect nuclear explosions put into orbit.²

June 16, 1966:

First Defense Satellite Communications System satellite put in orbit.¹

Jan 25, 1967:

Soviets complete first Orbital bombardment System test.¹

July 3-4, 1967:

Air Force, Army and Navy complete first Space based communications.¹

Oct 20, 1968:

Soviets carry out first co-orbital Anti-Satellite craft test.¹

November 1970:

USAF launches first classified Support Satellite which detects missile launches.¹

Sept 13, 1985:

First Us anti Satellite test destroys a satellite by air-launched weapons.¹

Jan 17, 1991:

First "Space based war" Desert Storm begins with air strikes.¹

July 31, 1995:

Last Defense Satellite Communications System satellite put in orbit.²

December, 2000:

A successful test of a Space-Based Laser in an environment simulating space.³

2012:

There is a planned launch of a satellite which can detect, track, and destroy enemy missles.⁴

^{1: http://www.afa.org/magazine/Aug2005/0805space.pdf}

^{2: http://msl.jpl.nasa.gov/Programs/dscs.html}

^{3: http://cndyorks.gn.apc.org/yspace/articles/laser18.htm}

^{4: http://www.spacedaily.com/news/laser-01d.html}

Space Weapons vs. Space-Based Defenced

Space-Based Weapons are weapons that travel around outer space and are directed against an enemy target whether on the ground, in the air, or in space. As examples of space-based weapons, there are anti-satellite weapons, and orbital bombardment weapons.

The picture shows the basic idea of how the Space-Based Missile Defense works. Also, the table explains the three regions of missile’s trajectory.

The Monitoring of Military Activities One group that monitors military weapons in space is EADS Austrium. This company is one of the leaders in creating satellites in all of Europe. They design entire satellite systems, and also are developing new technologies that will be developed into space based defense systems in the future. Austrium works with European nations such as France, England, Spain, Germany, and Portugal, and is responsible for creating military weapons, such as M45 and M51 missiles, and military communication systems, as well as satellite space defense systems, and is the contractors of over 70 communication satellites. An example of the space based defense systems they are working on is an exo-atmospheric anti-missile defense system, and they are currently working on the first optical ballistic surveillance early-warning demonstrator in Europe.

These are international space laws set by the UN outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States, States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner; the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; providing that those bodies should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, that their environments should not be disrupted, that the United Nations should be informed of the location and purpose of any station established on those bodies. In addition, the Agreement provides that the Moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind and that an international regime should be established to govern the exploitation of such resources when such exploitation is about to become feasible.

States shall be responsible for national space activities whether

carried out by governmental or non-governmental activities;

States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

Space Security Different Types of Space Security: