Critical
Issues Forum
Critical
Issues Forum
Benchmark 1
Objective 1
Definition of space: Space is defined as the area beginning 100 kilometers from the Earth’s surface and extending infinitely in all directions. Space is a vacuum, with all existing matter, both natural and manmade, dispersed throughout.
Kinds of
objects that might be put into space:
· Manned space vehicles
· Satellites
o Communications, research, weather, GPS, and Reconnaissance
· Space Stations
· Telescopes
· Weapons platforms
· Manmade debris resulting from satellites/space stations
Definition of Space Weapons: Any platform or vessel in or beyond the orbit of Earth that is meant to be used as a weapon and does not serve any scientific or commercial purpose.
· Current Space Weapon- none exist as of Feb. 22nd 2007
· Imagined/Possible
Space Weapons – Any manner of weapon or weapons platform that can be conceived
by the human imagination. For example: Ballistic missile platforms, manned
outposts, laser platforms….
Definition of militarisation
of space: The
militarization of space is the development, production, deployment, and
proliferation of military technology and activity in space
·
The use of space is defined as any endeavor that
utilizes the unique nature of space and applies it for commercial, scientific,
or military gain.
Definition of space-based defense includes any system devised as a defensive mechanism without offensive capabilities that is deployed/employed in space.
Definition
of space junk: the debris and other
objects orbiting the earth that no longer serve any useful purpose. Space junk
is a threat to manned vehicle and satellites, and must be dealt with before it
accumulates to the point where it damages one significantly.
Space security is safe access to space and the absence of threats from objects that are already in space, as well as the ability to safeguard those objects. It also involves the right of all nations to use space and not be deterred by any other nation, so long as they use it for peaceful purposes.
These definitions were developed after reading a vast multitude of sources and postulating entirely out of our own thought processes.
Objective 2
For objective 2 we decided to highlight the space program history of a particular nation. We selected Russia. The Russian space program has a very prestigious heritage, and its history is inextricably linked with all developments in space technology, whether it was something developed by Russia itself back when it was the Soviet Union, or developed by the United States in an attempt to beat the USSR.
History of the Russian Space Program
The beginning of the Soviet space program can be traced back to a man named Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, known as the “The Father of Cosmonautics”(Aerospace 44). Though he had no formal education he was able to apply Newton’s third law of motion (action and reaction) to theorize that a rocket with enough thrust could propel itself and a crew out of Earth’s gravitational pull and into space. He was never able to prove his theory, but men that came after him such as Wernher von Braun and Sergei P. Korolev were able to prove his theory correct.
There were many other things that pushed the growth of the Soviet space program; the communist revolution in 1917 gave the field of science greater prominence in the Soviet Union. The German threat during the 1930’s would have accelerated the Soviet space program as well, but Stalin had a negative impact on the program; his purges would rid the Soviet Union of many talented scientists and engineers.
Sergei P. Korolev himself was sent to a labor camp due to Stalin’s purges. Despite Korolev’s talent as an engineer he found himself being shipped off to Siberia to serve his sentence. He was in Siberia from 1938 to 1940, and during 1940 he was sent to a sharashka, one of many design bureaus, in the Soviet Union. He was in and out of these bureaus until 1945, when he was given the task to go to Germany to evaluate and bring back any information and technology he could uncover about German missile technology.
He was very successful with the German technology developed by von Braun; this propelled the Soviet space program ahead of the Americans. Without the German threat looming over the head of the Soviet Union, Korolev was given the task to make the Soviet Union first in space and beat the Americans to the moon. Korolev was not the first to the moon, but his team accomplished many firsts, including the world’s first I.C.B.M (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile) known to us as the R-7. The R-7 led the Soviet Union to many firsts over the United States. It launched the first satellite into space, Sputnik I on 04 October 1957, Sputnik II the first living creature into space on 03 November 1957, the first man into space Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961, the first woman into space Valentina Tereshkova on 16 June 1963 and various other satellites during its tenure.
The
R-7 was originally designed to launch a 3000 kg payload
over a distance of 8000 km (Energia). The design was changed rapidly it had to
launch a 5500 kg payload over the same distance, the added weight changed the
design of the rocket drastically. The added weight had to be accommodated with
more powerful boosters; its original boosters did not have the required thrust
to propel the added weight over the same distance. New designs had to be made
and on May of 1957, four years after its original introduction, the first R-7
was sent to a launch facility ready to launch.
The initial launches of the rocket were met with disaster, on the first launch one of the boosters strapped outside of the rocket came off during lift-off. The second launch attempt was met with technical problems and was removed from the launch pad, the third simply lost all stability during flight and the fourth actually succeeded. It was able to leave the launch site and hit its designated target.
The communist government used many of the accomplishments the Soviet Union had in space as a propaganda tool, to show communist supremacy over western capitalism. Even with all the accomplishments Korolev and his team achieved, he was pressured to beat the Americans to the moon. Under the pressure of his government Korolev and his team designed and developed a giant rocket, the N-1. The N-1 from the beginning of its development was plagued with problems: unrealistic schedules, technical problems, and the sheer size of the project ultimately led to the N-1s failure. The rocket never achieved its goal of sending a crew to the moon, and in 1966 Sergei Povlovich Korolev died. After his death the Soviet Space program never fully recovered.
After the death of Korolev the Soviets achieved one last triumph over the Americans; they were able the send up the Mir space station into orbit in 1986. The Mir launch is viewed as one of the last Soviet triumphs. After the complete collapse of the Soviet government the space program they once had was stopped in its tracks. Since the transformation of the Russian government to a democracy they have begun to rebuild their space program. Today it cooperates with many nations in space-related affairs. They are slowly bringing prestige back to a program that was once considered the best in the world.
References:
“People: Korolev.” 22 January 2007. < http://www.russianspaceweb.com/korolev.html>
“Rockets: R-7 Family.” 31 January 2007. < http://www.russianspaceweb.com/r7.html>
“Rockets: Launchers: N-1.” 2 February 2007. < http://www.russianspaceweb.com/n1.html>
“Rocket R-7.” S.P. Korolev RSC Energia. 5 February 2007. <http://www.energia.ru/english/
energia/launchers-r7.html>
Sellers, Jerry J., et al. Aerospace Science: The Exploration of Space. U.S.A. McGraw-Hill, 2003
Movie Review
The movie October Sky was based on a true story about a high schooler named Homer Hickam Jr. Growing up in Coalwood, West Virginia, 1957; Homer becomes inspired when he sees the Soviet satellite, Sputnik, to build rockets. Because of his father’s disapproval, limited education, and several failures his dreams seem to go to waste. However, with the help of his teacher and three friends he becomes successful in launching a rocket and winning the National Science Fair.
After the launch of Sputnik many Americans became skeptical of the countries technological standing. They felt as if Russia’s victory meant very little or very much. To the coal miners in Coalwood, it did not mean a lot. It was a distant dream, it had no bearing on their day-to-day lives. “Let them have outer space, we got rock n’ roll,” said one of the characters from October Sky.
The movie October Sky represents the motivation and dreams of exploration in space. It also shows the competition between the Soviet Union and the United States to “conquer” space. The movie also gives an example of the background of NASA employees, Homer, the main character, had to overcome low community and family expectations, but he was driven by desires to get into space; he was able to triumph overcome these obstacles.
Works Cited
October Sky. Dir. Joe Johnston. Per. Jake Gyllenhaal, Chris Cooper, Chris Owen, Laura Dern. Universal Pictures, 1999.
The following is a database of some of the major objects that have been put into space during the past 60 years.
|
Object |
Country |
Description |
Year |
|
NRL V-2 rocket |
USA |
First to observe the Sun’s UV spectrum |
1946 |
|
NRL V-2 rocket |
USA |
First to observe solar x-rays |
1949 |
|
Sputnik- 1 |
USSR |
The first artificial satellite |
1957 |
|
Explorer III |
USA |
Discovered Earth’s radiation belt |
1957 |
|
Pioneer 0 |
USA |
Exploded in first stage |
1958 |
|
Pioneer 1 |
USA |
Failed to reach escape velocity |
1958 |
|
Pioneer 3 |
USA |
Failed to reach escape velocity |
1958 |
|
Luna 1 |
USSR |
First lunar flyby. Discovered solar winds and is now in solar orbit |
1958 |
|
Pioneer 4 |
USA |
Placed space probe in solar orbit |
1959 |
|
Luna 2 |
USSR |
First spacecraft to impact the moon |
1959 |
|
Luna 3 |
USSR |
Encountered the moon and took first image of moon’s hidden side, now decayed in earth-moon orbit |
1959 |
|
Pioneer 5 |
USA |
Placed space probe in solar orbit |
1960 |
|
Mars 1960A |
USSR |
Failed to reach Earth’s orbit |
1960 |
|
Mars 1960B |
USSR |
Failed to reach Earth’s orbit |
1960 |
|
Venera 1 |
USSR |
Now in solar orbit |
1961 |
|
Aerobee Rocket |
USA |
Observed the first x-ray stars |
1962 |
|
Ranger 3 |
USA |
Lunar probe missed moon and is now in solar orbit |
1962 |
|
Ranger 4 |
USA |
First lunar impact of the Moon |
1962 |
|
Mariner 2 |
USA |
Observed Venus, 3 weeks after arriving on Venus’s surface it went off air. It is now in solar orbit |
1962 |
|
Ranger 5 |
USA |
Became a flyby because of spacecraft failure, it is now in solar orbit |
1962 |
|
Mars 1962A |
USSR |
Spacecraft failed to leave Earth’s orbit after the final rocket stage exploded |
1962 |
|
Mars 1 |
USSR |
Communications failed en route |
1962 |
|
Mars 1962B |
USSR |
Failed to leave Earth’s orbit |
1962 |
|
Luna 4 |
USSR |
Missed the moon and is now in Earth Moon orbit |
1963 |
|
Ranger 6 |
USA |
Cameras failed; lunar probe impacted the surface of the moon |
1964 |
|
Zond 1 |
USSR |
Communication lost; now in a solar orbit |
1964 |
|
Ranger 7 |
USA |
Sent close range pictures of moon back to Earth, impacted Moon |
1964 |
|
Mariner 3 |
USA |
Mars attempt. Failed due to equipment failure, now in solar orbit |
1964 |
|
Mariner 4 |
USA |
landed on Mars and sent back 22 close-range pictures, it is currently in solar orbit |
1964 |
|
Zond 2 |
USSR |
Contact was lost en route |
1964 |
|
Ranger 8 |
USA |
Sent back high-resolution pictures of the Moon, impacted in Mare Tranquillitatis |
1965 |
|
Ranger 9 |
USA |
Lunar probe sent back pictures of its impact on the Moon |
1965 |
|
Luna 5 |
USSR |
Failed and impacted the moon |
1965 |
|
Luna 6 |
USSR |
Missed the moon and is now in solar orbit |
1965 |
|
Zond 3 |
USSR |
Returned pictures of the lunar far side and is now in solar orbit |
1965 |
|
Luna 7 |
USSR |
Failed and impacted the moon |
1965 |
|
Venera 2 |
USSR |
Communication failed just before arrival and is now in solar orbit |
1965-1966 |
|
Venera 3 |
USSR |
Communication failed just before entering the atmosphere and crashed on Venus |
1965-1966 |
|
Luna 8 |
USSR |
Failed and impacted the moon |
1965 |
|
Pioneer 6 |
USA |
Probe is still transmitting from solar orbit |
1965 |
|
Luna 9 |
USSR |
Landed on lunar surface and took pictures of the surface |
1966 |
|
Luna 10 |
USSR |
Currently in lunar orbit |
1966 |
|
Surveyor 1 |
USA |
First America soft landing on the lunar |
1966-1967 |
|
Lunar Orbiter 1 |
USA |
Orbited moon, photographed far side, impacted on command |
1966 |
|
Pioneer 7 |
USA |
Solar orbiting and was recently turned |
1966 |
|
Luna 11 |
USSR |
Currently in lunar orbit |
1966-1967 |
|
Surveyor 2 |
USA |
Failed and impacted the moon |
1966 |
|
Luna 12 |
USSR |
In lunar orbit |
1966-1967 |
|
Lunar Orbiter 2 |
USA |
Photographed potential sites for lunar landing and impacted on command |
1966 |
|
Luna 13 |
USSR |
Landed on lunar surface |
1966 |
|
Lunar Orbiter 3 |
USA |
Photographed potential Apollo 12 landing sites, then impacted on command |
1967 |
|
Surveyor 3 |
USA |
Landed on lunar surface |
1967 |
|
Lunar Orbiter 4 |
USA |
Orbited the moon at a polar inclination and impacted on command |
1967 |
|
Venera 4 |
USSR |
First probe to be placed directly in atmosphere and return atmospheric data; crushed on by Venus’s pressure before it reached surface |
1967 |
|
Mariner 5 |
USA |
Studied the Venusian magnetic field and found that the atmosphere was composed of 85-99% carbon dioxide and it is now in solar orbit |
1967 |
|
Surveyor 4 |
USA |
Lander failed and impacted the moon |
1967 |
|
Explorer 35 |
USA |
This orbiter acquired field and particle data |
1967-1972 |
|
Lunar Orbiter 5 |
USA |
Took high resolution pictures of many important sites and impacted on command |
1967 |
|
Surveyor 5 |
USA |
Landed on the lunar surface |
1967 |
|
Surveyor 6 |
USA |
Landed and took off on the lunar surface |
1967 |
|
Pioneer 8 |
USA |
Solar probe that is still transmitting from solar |
1967 |
|
Surveyor 7 |
USA |
Landed on a lunar surface |
1968 |
|
Luna 14 |
USSR |
In lunar-solar orbit |
1968 |
|
Zond 5 |
USSR |
Lunar fly around and Earth return |
1968 |
|
Pioneer 9 |
USA |
In solar orbit and died on March 3 |
1968-1987 |
|
Apollo 8 |
USA |
First manned lunar |
1968 |
|
Venera 5 |
USSR |
Collected data of Venus and was lost to the pressure in the atmosphere of Venus |
1969 |
|
Venera 6 |
USSR |
Collected data of Venus and was lost to the pressure in the atmosphere of Venus |
1969 |
|
Mariner 6 |
USA |
Collected data of Mars and took over 200 pictures of the planet and is in solar orbit |
1969 |
|
Mariner 7 |
USA |
Collected data of Mars and took over 200 pictures of the planet and is now in solar orbit |
1969 |
|
Apollo 10 |
USA |
Manned lunar fly- around and took several 10mm photographs |
1969 |
|
Luna 15 |
USA |
Unsuccessful sample return attempt. Crashed during landing |
1969 |
|
Apollo 11 |
USA |
First manned lunar landing |
1969 |
|
Zond 7 |
USSR |
Lunar fly around and Earth return |
1969 |
|
Apollo 12 |
USA |
Manned lunar landing |
1969 |
|
Apollo 13 |
USA |
Lunar Module that was used as a lifeboat for astronauts |
1970 |
|
Verena 7 |
USSR |
The first successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet |
1970 |
|
Luna 16 |
USSR |
Collected lunar samples and returned to Earth |
1970 |
|
Zond 8 |
USSR |
Lunar fly around and returned to Earth |
1970 |
|
Luna 17 |
USSR |
Made lunar landing with rover |
1970-1971 |
|
Apollo 14 |
USA |
Collected samples from the moon |
1971 |
|
Mariner 8 |
USA |
Failed to reach the Earth’s orbit |
1971 |
|
Kosmos 419 |
USSR |
Failed to reach the Earth’s orbit |
1971 |
|
Mars 2 |
USSR |
Crash-landed on mars because breaking rockets failed |
1971 |
|
Mars 3 |
USSR |
The first successful landing on Mars; returned data in 1972 |
1971 |
|
Mariner 9 |
USA |
First US spacecraft to enter an orbit around a planet other than the moon and it is still in Martian orbit |
1971-1972 |
|
Apollo 15 |
USA |
Manned Lunar landing |
1971 |
|
Luna 18 |
USSR |
Unsuccessful sample return attempt and crashed during landing |
1971-1972 |
|
Luna 19 |
USSR |
Now in lunar orbit |
1971-1972 |
|
Luna 20 |
USSR |
Landed on moon and returned samples to Earth |
1972 |
|
Pioneer 10 |
USA |
Took over 500 pictures of Jupiter and its moons and collected data of Jupiter and has left the solar system |
1972 |
|
Venera 8 |
USSR |
Collected data of Venus’s atmosphere and returned data within 50 minutes of arriving on Venus. |
1972 |
|
Apollo 16 |
USA |
Collected samples of Descartes crater |
1972 |
|
Apollo 17 |
USA |
Collected sample Taurus-Littrow |
1972 |
|
Luna 12 |
USSR |
Lunar landing with rover |
1973 |
|
Pioneer 11 |
USA |
Took better pictures than Pioneer 10 and collected data of Jupiter, it has left the solar system |
1973-1999 |
|
Skylab |
USA |
First American space Station. It was abandoned in 1974 and reentered the Earth’s atmosphere in 1979 |
1973 |
|
Explorer 49 |
USA |
Solar physics probe placed in lunar orbit |
1973 |
|
Mars 4 |
USSR |
Failed to reach Mars’s orbit due to breaking engine malfunction |
1973 |
|
Mars 5 |
USSR |
Entered Mars’s orbit and collected images |
1973 |
|
Mars 6 |
USSR |
Collected data using lander but failed on its way down |
1973 |
|
Mars 7 |
USSR |
Missed planet |
1973 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mariner 10 |
USA |
The first spacecraft to have an imaging system and it now in solar orbit |
1973-1975 |
|
Luna 22 |
USSR |
Successfully entered Lunar orbit |
1974-1975 |
|
Luna 23 |
USSR |
Crashed on lunar surface |
1974 |
|
Helios 1 |
USA & West Germany |
USA and West Germany solar probe and is in solar orbit |
1974-1975 |
|
Verena 9 |
USSR |
Transmitted first black and white images of Venus and is now in Venus orbit |
1975 |
|
Verena 10 |
USSR |
Transmitted first black and white images of Venus |
1975 |
|
Viking 1 |
USA |
Was an experiment to search for Micro-organisms and it acquired over 52,000 images of Mars, it was accidentally shut down in 1982 and communication was never regained |
1975-1980 |
|
Viking 2 |
USA |
Worked with Viking 1 and it was deactivated on 1978 when it ran out of altitude-control repellant |
1975-1978 |
|
Helios 2 |
USA |
Came within 43 million kilometers of the sun |
1976 |
|
Luna 24 |
USSR |
Landing site was Mare
Crisium |
1976 |
|
Voyager 2 |
USA |
Flew by Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune |
1977 |
|
Voyager 1 |
USA |
Flew by Jupiter |
1977 |
|
Pioneer Venus 1 |
USA |
Orbiter lost in Venusian atmosphere |
1978-1992 |
|
Pioneer Venus 2 |
USA |
Put four probes on Venus |
1978 |
|
International Sun-Earth Explorer 3 |
USA |
Passed through plasma tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner |
1978 |
|
Venera 11 |
USSR |
Landed on Venus and imaging systems failed |
1978 |
|
Venera 12 |
USSR |
Landed on Venus and electrical discharges were recorded |
1978 |
|
Solar Maximum Mission |
USA |
Designed to provide coordinated observations of solar activity |
1980 |
|
Venera 13 |
USSR |
Took first colored panoramic pictures of Venus and collected soil analysis |
1981 |
|
Venera 14 |
USSR |
Took black and white and colored panoramic pictures of Venus and collected solil analysis |
1981 |
|
Venera 15 |
USSR |
Took high resolution pictures and discovered hot spots on Venus |
1983 |
|
Venera 16 |
USSR |
Took high resolution pictures and discovered hot spots on Venus |
1983 |
|
Vega 1 |
USSR |
Investigated Venus’s middle cloud layer |
1984 |
|
Vega 2 |
USSR |
Took samples of Venus’s soil |
1984 |
|
Phobos 1 |
USSR |
Was sent to investigate Martian moon, Phobos, but was lost en route |
1988 |
|
Phobos 2 |
USSR |
Lander never made it to Phobos |
1988 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Magellan |
USA |
Mission was supposed to map Venus on a synthetic aperture re-entered atmosphere in 1989 |
1989-1994 |
|
Galileo |
USA & Europe |
Belonged to the USA and Europe and was designed to study Jupiter for 2 years |
1989 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hubble Space Telescope |
USA & Europe |
USA and Europe Telescope that returned high resolution images of Mars and other outer planets |
1990 |
|
Ulysses |
USA & Europe |
Belonged to USA and Europe and studies poles of the Sun and interstellar space and above and below the poles |
1990 |
|
Yohkoh |
USA, Japan, England |
Belonged to USA, Japan, and Europe and was a spacecraft that studied high-energy radiation from solar flares |
1991 |
|
Mars Observer |
USA |
Communication lost |
1992 |
|
Clementine |
USA |
DSPSE used to test new space technology |
1994 |
|
SOHO |
USA & Europe |
Belonged to Europe and USA and used to study the Sun’s internal structure |
1995 |
|
NEAR |
USA |
Used to orbit near Earth 433 Eros |
1996 |
|
Mars Global Surveyor |
USA |
To orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data |
1996 |
|
Mars 96 |
Russia |
Failed to leave Earth’s orbit |
1996 |
|
Mars Pathfinder |
USA |
Landed on Mars and released rover named Sojourner on Mars to collect data |
1997 |
|
Cassini/ Huygens |
USA & Europe |
Belonged to USA and Europe for exploration of the Saturnian system |
1997 |
|
Lunar Prospector |
USA |
For a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon |
1998 |
|
Deep Space 1 (DS1) |
USA |
First of a series of technology demonstration |
1998 |
|
Mars Climate Orbiter |
USA |
Study Martian weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget |
1998 |
|
Mars Polar Lander |
USA |
Touch down on the southern polar terrain; near the edge of the carbon dioxide ice cap in Mar’s late southern spring. Communication lost |
1999 |
|
Deep Space 2 (DS2) |
USA |
Contact lost |
1999 |
|
Star Dust |
USA |
Capsule designed to collect data from a comet; scheduled to arrive in January 2006 |
1999 |
|
IMAGE |
USA |
First weather satellite |
2000 |
|
2001 Mars Odyssey |
USA |
Supposed to orbit Mars and collect data |
2001 |
|
Genesis |
USA |
Supposed to collect samples of solar wind particles |
2001 |
|
CONTOUR |
USA |
Fly by several comets |
2002 |
|
Mars Exploration Rovers |
USA |
A long term effort of robotic exploration of Mars |
2003 |
|
Deep Impact |
USA |
Fly by that carries primary imaging instruments and the impactor to the area of the comet nucleus. |
2003 |
|
MESSENGER |
USA |
Focus on answering six outstanding questions that will allow us to better understand mercury as a planet. |
2004 |
|
Pluto-Kuiper Express |
USA |
Mission stopped due to budget |
2004 |
|
Mars Reconnaissance Orbit |
USA |
Explored Mars over a full Martian year and gather data |
2005 |
Space.com
http://www.space.com/spacewatch/space_junk_list.html
List of space programs
http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/space.php'
Solarviews.com
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/craft1.htm
Viking 1
www.nasm.si.edu
Objective 3
We composed an essay covering the military uses of space. It involves a brief history of certain ways space has been utilized by the military. We also took into account the motivations that would fuel such militarization of space.
Military Uses of Space
The nature of space as the final frontier means that countries around the world have been trying to exploit it for their own military advantage. The United States and the former Soviet Union had the two largest space programs of the 20th century, beginning in the 1950s and coming to a rather abrupt end in 1989 with the collapse of the Soviet Union. This rapid buildup of technology became known as the ‘Space Race’ and led to many of the breakthroughs in science that are commonplace in today’s world. Since then, many countries around the world have put up communication satellites, early-warning satellites, imaging, and navigation satellites.
Communication is essential to the military. Speedy and effective communications between air, ground, and sea forces is the key to success in battle. One of the first communication satellites sent into orbit was Echo 1, built and launched by the Unites States (Aerospace Second Edition 40). Echo 1 was little more that a plastic ball covered in aluminum; it worked under a passive system, meaning that it bounced or reflected signals to there intend targets. The success of Echo 1 set the stage for Telstar. Telstar, unlike Echo 1, was an active communication satellite. Active systems receive and send signals farther than any passive system could. Telstar and its active system revolutionized communications and were the forerunner for Milstar, the system that is used by the United States military up to this day.
The Milstar communication system consists of a constellation of five satellites, all working in conjunction to send out essential wartime communications (Lockheed Martin). Milstar can communicate with anyone that has a terminal that can receive Milstar messages. Many times these terminals are set upon ships, submarines, aircraft, and vehicles. All of these communicate via mission control, which receives signals form Milstar and sends them off to their intended target; mission control is located in Shriever Air Force Base, Colorado (Lockheed Martin).
Milstar allows battlefield commanders to set up communication posts anywhere and have up to date communications with all of their troops. This allows for greater mobility. Since its introduction in the post-Cold War era the Milstar system has been upgraded to Milstar II. Milstar II does the same job Milstar I did but it does it faster and with grater efficiency. Despite the success of the Milstar system it will be replaced by the Advanced Extremely High Frequency Satellite Communications System, or AEHF for short (AirForce Mag.). This new system will have ten times the capacity of Milstar II; AEHF system is scheduled for launch in April of 2008.
Communication is not the only role satellites play in the military; they are also used for navigation purposes. The Global Navigation Satellite System or GLONASS a constellation consisting of 21 satellites in different orbital planes around the Earth gives the Russians a precise navigational system. The United States has its own navigation system, GPS or Global Positioning System. This system is comprised of 24 Satellites in orbit around the Earth. The first GPS satellite launch was 22 February 1978, after its initial launch new upgrades have been introduced to the GPS satellites (Spacetech).
Navigation is used by the military to have accurate positions of personnel, vehicles, submarines, ships, and planes. The position is relayed to each of these and helps minimize the potential of friendly fire. The GPS system is also used the U.S. military to guide missiles, and rockets. Most missiles regardless of their launch site have to travel great distances to reach their intended target. A small deviation from the missiles trajectory can put the missile somewhere it shouldn’t be, for example neighborhoods, schools, or other areas of high concentration of innocent civilians. Rockets will be under the same guidelines, any civilian deaths acquainted with the launch of a missile or rocket can be followed by an international outcry.
Space is also used to defend against missile launches. The United States calls these defenses the Defense Support Program or DSP. These satellites orbit the Earth and “watch” for any ballistic missile launch. Its highly sensitive infrared sensors continuously scan the Earth for the hot plume of a launch, or the exhaust of a missile (Aerospace Second Edition 56). Once a launch is detected by any of the DSP satellites, it immediately warns ground control units, which deal with the problem. A great example of the effectiveness of the DSP can be clearly seen during the Persian Gulf War. The system was able to pick out the launch of Iraqi scud missiles, and warn the general public as well as coalition forces, of the danger. Its immense reliability and potential for growth have sent the DSP to outlive its projected life by twenty-years (Globalsecurity).
All of the mentioned systems have one aspect in common; they are all used to aid the military in time of combat. The job each one of these systems has is crucial for the military, without communication between friendly forces movement in the battlefield would be difficult, and strikes on the enemy launched by artillery, missiles, or rockets would be very risky. One of them might miss their target and hit friendly forces. The same can be said for navigation, if a missile once in flight loses it navigational system it has the risk to hit friendly forces or worse innocent civilians. Early-warning satellites allow countries to protect themselves and their population from aggressive neighbors or countries. Space has become a crucial part of military operations in all fields. The importance of this ultimate high ground to the future cannot be underestimated.
References:
“Defense Support Program.” 19 February 2007. <http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/system/
dsp.htm>
“GLONASS.” 21 February 2007. <http://www.spaceandtech.com/spacedata/constellations/
glonass_consum.shtml>
Mehuron, Tamar A. “2006 Space Almanac: The US military space aperation in facts and figures. Airforce Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association. August 2006, Vol. 89, No.8.
“Milstar.” 20 February 2007. <http://www.lockheedmartin.com/wms/
findPage.do?dsp=fec&ci=11489&rsbci=5&fti=0&ti=0&sc=400>
Sellers, Jerry J., et al. Aerospace Science: The Exploration of Space. U.S.A. McGraw-Hill, 2003