Center for Non-Proliferation Studies

Critical Issues Forum

Nuclear Renaissance:

Benefits versus Risks

Student-participant: Tatiana Serikova

Teacher-consultant: Irina Zyryanova

School 125

Snezhinsk

2007-2008

BENCHMARK 1

Part 1	Part 2	Part 3	Part 4	Part 5	Part 6
Glossary	Power engineering nowadays	Basic principles of nuclear reaction	Nuclear reactors and their types	Bibliography	Abbreviations
Page 2	Page 6	Page 13	Page 15	Page 19	Page20

Part 1

Glossary

Atom	The smallest part of a chemical element that can take part in the chemical reaction. OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Charge electricity	The amount of electricity that is put into a battery or carried by a substance OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Biomass	refers to living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum. ru.wikipedia.org
Ecology	The relations of plants and living creatures to each other and to their environment; the study of this OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Electron	A very small peace of matter (a substance) with a negative electric charge, found in all atoms. OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary

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Fossil fuel	Fuel such as coal or oil, that was formed over millions of years from the remains of animals or plants OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Global warming	The increase in temperature of earth’s atmosphere, that is caused by the increase of particular gases, especially carbon dioxide OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Hydropower (hydraulic power)	is the force or energy of moving water. It may be captured for some useful purpose with hydro power stations ru.wikipedia.org
Hydroelectricity	is electricity produced by hydropower. It is a renewable source of energy, produces no waste, and does not produce carbon dioxide (CO2) which contributes to greenhouse gases. ru.wikipedia.org
Hydro power stations	a power plant in which prime mover is water. ru.wikipedia.org
Nucleon	a collective name for two baryons: the neutron and the proton ru.wikipedia.org
Nuclear power	a type of nuclear technology involving the controlled use of nuclear reactions, usually nuclear fission, to release energy for work including propulsion, heat, and the generation of electricity. ru.wikipedia.org
Neutron	A very small piece of matter (a substance) that carries no electric charge and that forms part of the nucleus (=central part) of an atom OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Non-renewable	(of natural resources such gas or oil) 1 that cannot be replaced after use 2 that cannot be continued or repeated for a further period of time after it has ended OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary

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Nuclear	1 using, producing or resulting from nuclear energy; 2 connected with weapons that use nuclear energy 3 (physics) of nucleus (=central part) of an atom OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Nuclear energy, Nuclear power	A powerful form of energy produced by spelling the nucleus (=central part) of atoms and used to produce electricity OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Nucleus	The central part of an atom, that contains most of its mass and that carries a positive electric CHARGE OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Power engineering ("power systems engineering”)	is a subfield of engineering that deals with power systems, specifically electric power generation, electric power transmission and electric power distribution, power conversion, and electromechanical devices. A power engineer supervises, operates, and maintains machinery and boilers that provide heat, power, refrigeration, and other utility services to heavy industry and large building complexes. Also it deals with the conception of new power sources. ru.wikipedia.org
Power station (generating station or power plant)	an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. ru.wikipedia.org
Power station (power plant)	A building or group of buildings where electricity is produced OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Proton	A very small peace of matter (a substance) with a positive electric charge that forms part of the nucleus (=central part) of an atom. OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Reactor	A large structure used for the controlled production of nuclear energy OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary

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Renewable	That is replaced naturally or controlled carefully and can therefore be used without the risk of finishing it all OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Source	A place, person or thing that you get something from OXFORD Advanced Learner’s dictionary
Thermal power station	a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. ru.wikipedia.org

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Part 2

Power engineering nowadays

Power engineering is very important nowadays. It provides industry with energy, which is necessary for its normal operation and development. Moreover, this brunch of industry gives us comfort living. Can you imagine your life without a computer, a TV-set and a microwave oven? Furthermore, petroleum and gas export is the main source of income for some countries, such as Russia and OPEC, so they depend on energy sources not only because of needs of people and industry but also because it brings in an income. For instance, in Russia the export of energy sources is nearly 60% of all exports. But usage of energy increases from year to year, so does power engineering, you can see it on the picture 1 that shows the amount of energy, produced in the USA from 1850 to 2000 or on the diagrams 1-3, which show the structure of fuel transportation in Russia.

Picture 1. Amounts of energy in 10Btu, produced in the USA from 1850 to 2000.

Colored lines mean different branches of power engineering. ( http://en.wikipedia.org )

In the picture 1 you can see also a development of power engineering: how energy sources have changed from year to year. History of energy sources shows, that changing domineering source takes decades. But this period of time has been descending. It took 100 years for coal in Europe to become a domineering source of energy (50% of using sources), but it took only 30 years to change coal onto petroleum. We can consider it as an effect of scientific and technological revolution: the speeding-up of industrial development, the reduction of the time

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interval between key inventions, need new, more convenient and cheap energy sources. So, we have changed wood onto coal, coal onto petroleum (as you can see in the diagrams 1-3), gas and hydroelectric power sources.

Percentage fuel transportation in all transportations. Russia.

Diagrams 1-3

(based on date from Gosudarstvennyi komitet po statistike or the State Committee for Statistics in English, 2004)

Diagram 1. Railway transport.

Diagram 2. Sea transport.

Diagram 3. Trunk pipeline.

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Then, because of research made before World War II, it was discovered, that one weight unit of uranium gives 2*10times more energy, than one weight unit of coal. In that way uranium became an important energy source. The first research nuclear reactor started to work December 2, 1942 in the USA, the leadership in this project belonged to an Italian scientist Enrico Fermi.

Nowadays the most important sources of energy are petroleum and gas, coal, hydro electrical and nuclear power sources. Also alternative sources of energy, which are not commonly used now, but perhaps will be developed in future, exist, for instance: wind and solar power, energy of tides (is used in Holland), energy of biomass. All sources can be divided into renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.

Renewable energy effectively uses natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and biofuels for transportation.

About 13 percent of the world primary energy comes from renewables, with most of renewable energy coming from traditional biomass, like wood-burning. Hydropower is the next largest renewable source, providing 2-3%, and modern technologies like geothermal, wind, solar, and marine energy together produce less than 1% of total world energy demand. The technical potential for their use is very large, exceeding all other readily available sources.

Non-renewable energy is energy taken from "finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to retrieve", as opposed to renewable energy sources, which "are naturally replenished in a relatively short period of time." Fossil fuels: coal exists as a mined solid, petroleum is a liquid, and forms the basis for heating oil, diesel fuel, and gasoline, natural gas( it is mostly methane), nuclear energy fuel for fission is mined as a solid as Uranium ore.

In other words, non-renewable energy is non-reusable fuel that can only be used once.( en.wikipedia.org)

So, we can see that all widespread sources of energy are non-renewable. The three most common types of fossil fuels are coal, petroleum and natural gas. Fossil fuels give us more than 90% of the world energy produced. Petroleum gives us nearly about 40 percent, coal - 24 percent and natural gas - 22 percent of all energy produced. All of these are burned to produce power. So here appeared the

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problem of air pollution and global warming. On the diagram 4 you can see the amount of carbon dioxide and electro energy per head produced. More energy produced – more carbon dioxide gets to the atmosphere.

So, the most common resources are not endless, it means someday we will be in a shortage of them. Some people say, that oil is still generated in the Earth's interior, but nevertheless by burning fossil fuels we damage environment, and people’s needs can exceed capabilities of oil wells and coal pits.

There are some problems, connected with using different types of sources.

You can see the table 1, which shows problems of availability, prices, transportation and pollution.

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energy	Coal	Petroleum	Gas
problem
Does the problem of availability exist?	No. The explored sources are huge.	Yes and no. The explode recourses can be used for decades.	No. The level of explode sources is 70 times more, than world uses.
Does the problem of a price exist?	No. It is the cheapest source of energy. And the price is decreasing nowadays.	Yes. Changing of the price leads serious consequences for world economics.	Yes. Often huge sources are far away from regions of the largest consumption.
Do the ecological problems exist?	Yes. There are serious ecological problems, such as global warming.	Yes. Air pollution, global warming, and oil splitting.	To some extent. It is the same as for coal and petroleum, but to a lesser degree.
Are countries dependent on exporters?	No. The most important users are owners of huge amount of this source.	Yes Instability of supplies from Russia and the Middle East is possible.	To some extent. Instability of supplies from Russia and the Middle East is possible.
Do some technological problems exist?	Yes. The technologies for rejecting air pollution are not developed enough.	Yes and no. Development of new possible sources of petroleum and new engines are necessary.	No.

Table 1

Problems of using different sources of energy.

L.Preobragenskaya The structure of power engineering in different countries., ENERGY./Economy. Tecnology.Ecology.2’2006

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energy	Nuclear energy	Renewable sources	Hydrogen power sources
problem
Does the problem of availability exist?	No. There are enough sources of uranium and ability for usage of spent fuel.	Yes and no. The resources are not inexhaustible.	Yes and no. It depends on way of producing energy.
Does the problem of a price exist?	Yes. To increase the economical efficiency of nuclear power stations we can only decrease the coat of it’s building.	Yes. The price is decreasing, but grants are necessary.	Yes. There are lots of outgoings.
Do the ecological problems exist?	Yes and no. There is a problem of storage of spent fuel.	No. Only limited consequences for ecology are possible.	Yes and no. Some negative consequences can exist.
Are countries dependent on exporters?	No. There are enough of resources of uranium.	No. They can Replace non-renewable sources.	May be Sometimes it depends on gas.
Do some technological problems exist?	No.	Yes. Development is very important.	Yes. Some technological problems are not solved.

Table 1 (continuation)

Problems of using different sources of energy.

L.Preobragenskaya The structure of power engineering in different countries., ENERGY./Economy. Tecnology.Ecology.2’2006

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For now, the safest for the environment, profitable and developed alternative is nuclear power.

So what advantages does nuclear power have?

1) It is the most environmental-friendly energy source. Producing nuclear energy we don’t pollute air with carbon dioxide, other gases and ashes, as we do using thermal power plants. We don’t destroy ecosystem as we do using hydropower plants. If nuclear power station works in scheduled mode, it doesn’t seriously influence the environment.

2) Nuclear power station can be built almost anywhere. We don’t need to built pipeline or railway, like for thermal power plants. It doesn’t depend so much on water sources like hydropower plants.

3) Nuclear power station makes lots of energy from little amount of sources. To produce the same amount of energy you need more than at 16000 times uranium less, than coal.

4) As for alternative energy sources, they depend on natural condition (tidal power plants depend on sea and climate, wind farms – on wind rose, solar batteries – on weather) or they are not developed enough.

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Part 3

Basic principles of nuclear reaction

So why does nuclear power have such advantages?

All materials are made up of very small, not seen with the naked eye elements called atoms. Atom consists of nucleus and electrons (or one electron - hydrogen), which rotate around the nucleus. Nucleus is made up of protons, amount of them is the same as amount of electrons, and neutrons. Interactions between them are:

· gravitation, but it is not strong because of small size of elements.

· electromagnetic coupling. Protons have positive charge, electrons have negative charge, and neutrons don’t have any charge. Protons (nucleus) interact with the electrons like usual charged particles. Because of this interaction electrons rotate around a nucleus.

· strong coupling makes a nucleus firm. It is an interaction between protons and neutrons.

· weak coupling. Because of it radio-active nuclear fission of uranium and nuclear fusion in the sun are possible.

( http://www.koiquest.co.uk/What%20is%20an%20Atom.htm )

A basis of nuclear reactor working principle is a controlled self-sustaining fission reaction of uranium nucleuses. Fossil uranium contains two kinds of isotopes: U-238 и U-235. Stability of nucleus depends on the number of nucleons, the number of neutrons in uranium nucleus is not equal to the number of protons, so nucleus of uranium try to get more stable condition with the help of radioactive

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transformations. In 1938 German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered fission of uranium nucleus under the action of thermal neutron. Neutrons don’t have any charge, so they don’t have electromagnetic coupling with electrons and can get into a nucleus without meeting with obstacles. Surplus neutron disturbs stability of nucleus and here oscillations appear. It leads to U nucleus’s decay into nucleuses, which have less weight (they are called “fission fragments”) and two or three neutrons, for example:

n + UU

UBa + Kr + 3n

As you can see, nucleus fission passes according to conservation of charge and number of nucleons. And here are new neutrons, which interact with other nucleuses of uranium, so here chain fission reaction begins. It is accompanied by calorification, because the energy of nucleon’s coupling in U is nearly 7,6 MeV, the energy of nucleon’s coupling in fission fragments is nearly 8,5 MeV, so as a consequence of fission here is calorification equal (8,5 – 7,6) MeV = 0,9 MeV for one nucleon. But there are 235 nucleons in U, so that there is a calorification equal 210 MeV or 3,2*10J for one nucleus. The result of 1 kg uranium fission is 8*10J calorification, it is equal to 20 kg of trinitrotoluol explosion. This calorification is enough to boil 2000 tons of water. But there is just 90% of working heat, 10% of heat is taken away with free neutrons.

Chain fission of U nucleuses

(http://www.npp.hu/mukodes/lancreakcio-e.htm)

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Produced energy is used to heat water, which converts to steam. This steam works and produces electricity.

Actually, the nuclear power plant is a typical thermal power station. Any nuclear power station may consider as thermal power station because its device is identical to a usual power plant and has heat generator, heat-transfer and an electric current generator (turbine). Basic elements of the nuclear power reactor are the core (“active zone” in Russian), the reflector of neutrons surrounding the core, the absorbers of neutrons providing the reactor control and shouting down emergency, the biological protection of a reactor. The reactor is placed in the hermetical metal case. The core is a reactor nuclear fuel volume. The chain nuclear reactions take place in the core and the energy of fission is absorbed into its material with the raises of temperature. An absorbed heat is allocated by means of the heat-transfer. Further the processes occur like work on a usual power station. The steam under pressure rotates a rotor of the generator of electric energy (the same occurs and on Hydroelectric Power Stations, only in this case the turbines are rotated from the flow of water).

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Part 4

Nuclear reactors and their types

More than 1000 different types of the reactors are existing, differing by fission material, level of fuel enrichment, a kind of heat-transfer.

Nuclear reactors are divided into various types according to usage, to physical, technical and operational features. A reactor can be experimental or power-producing. The reactors are divided on thermal, intermediate and fast, it depends on the neutrons’ “speed”. Reactors on thermal neutrons are classified by type of a deterrent as graphite, light water and heavy-water reactors.

It is possible to classify reactors according to the type of case: full-case and channel. Their basic difference is that in the case-type reactor the core and the heat-transfer and in the general strong case, and in channel – are distributed on channels.

Let us give the examples of some types of reactors:

Uranium-graphite reactor of channel type: a reactor without the case. Graphite moderator. The heat-transfer is water. Reactors of this type have the power above 1000 MWt. This type of reactors in Russia refers to RBPC (a reactor of the big power channel), and in the USA – LWGR (a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor with graphite moderator).

Light-water reactor: usual water is using in the case of the reactor as a moderator and the heat-transfer. This type of reactors is named as WWER in Russia. For example – WWER-1000 (the water-water power reactor), in the countries of west BWR (Boiling Water Reactor) and PWR (Pressure Water Reactor with water under pressure). CANDU-type of the thermal nuclear reactor developed in Canada is the nuclear reactor with heavy-water moderator and the light water heat-transfer of boiling type.

HWLWR is a reactor with heavy water as moderator and light water as a heat-transfer.

Reactor on fast neutrons (FN) – in this type of reactor the general part of acts of division are caused by fast neutrons. The fast breeder reactor type has not a moderator, and uses a liquid metal as the heat-transfer. For example, French PHENIX, Russian FR-600 and Japanese MONZU.

Let’s see advantages and disadvantages of three the most common types of reactors.

Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)

The use of heavy water both as a moderator and as heat-transfer is the key to the PHWR system, which uses natural uranium as fuel in the form of ceramic UO. It uses moderator at lower temperatures, not hot (like in usual designs), so this reactor efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons are "faster".

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But the use of natural uranium fuel does have a serious consequence: the amount of spent fuel. Reactors, which use enriched fuel produce less waste and spent fuel.

Pressurized water reactor (PWR)

It is easy to operate. It has high level of safety: chances for the reactor to run out of control are low. It is cheaper, than reactors, which use more expensive heavy water.

But the coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures. Moreover, the reactor can’t be refueled while operating and it is subjected to the corrosion. It used enriched fuel, which is more expensive, than natural uranium fuel.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

It operates at a lower pressure and fuel temperature. Has lower risk of destruction of coolant compared to a PWR. It is easy for reconstruction in case of emergency.

But the lifetime of the turbine is limited because of contamination by short-lived activation products. And the reactor is also subjected to the corrosion.

Reactor on fast neutrons (Breeders)

They are able to use low-enriched fuel. They can produce 60 times more energy from 1 ton of fuel, than other reactors. Reactor can create ecologically-safe closed cycle with reprocessing plant.

But it can be used for producing plutonium, which can be used for military purposes.

Ability of using civil nuclear power plants for military purposes is another problem. Even without special secret military programs, civil usage of nuclear power has a lot of possibilities for military developments.

- The enrichment and fuel fabrication plants can be used for fabrication of highly-enriched uranium, which are used for making nuclear bombs, like the one, that was dropped on Hiroshima.

- The experimental and civil reactors can be used for producing plutonium which is used for making nuclear bombs, like the one, that was dropped on Nagasaki.

- The reprocessing plants can be used for producing Pu, which can also be a material for making weapon.

- Fuel storages can be used as a storage for nuclear weapon materials.

- Nuclear facilities, which are used for civil aims, can be also used for making military developments.

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As you can see, producing nuclear energy, we use very dangerous fuel and technologies, which also can be used for making nuclear weapons (we use enriched fuel both in reactors and weapon, but in a reactor is a controlled self-sustaining fission reaction, but in weapon it is a uncontrolled self-sustaining fission or fusion reaction) So there is a question, how we can provide security and safety in this industry and what we should do to avoid accidents and incidents of nuclear terrorism.

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Part 5

Bibliography:

1. V. A. Kasianov “Physic 11^th Grade”, Drofa 2005;

2. “Nuclear Technology Review 2007”, International Atomic Energy Agency;

3. V.I. Levin, «Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Reactors», Atomizdat 1979.

4. V.A. Orlov, N.N. Sokolov, «Nuclear Non-Proliferation», PIR – the Center of Political Research, Moscow 2000.

5. L.Preobragenskaya The structure of power engineering in different countries., ENERGY./Economy. Tecnology.Ecology.2’2006, Moscow,Nauka

6. State Committee for Statistics, Annual Report., Moscow., 2004

7. http://en.wikipedia.org/

8. http://www.minatom.ru/

9. http://www.koiquest.co.uk/

10. http://www.npp.hu/

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Part 6

Abbreviations

TV	television
OPEC	Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
USA	United States of America
Btu	British thermal unit
J	Joule
HEU	Highly enriched uranium
MeV	Mega electron volt
MWt	megawatt
RBPC	reactor of the big power channel
LWGR	a light-water-cooled nuclear reactor with graphite moderator
WWER	water-water power reactor
BWR	Boiling Water Reactor
PWR	Pressure Water Reactor
HWLWR	Heavy Water – Light Water Reactor
PHWR	Pressurized heavy water reactor
FN	fast neutrons

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