CRITICAL ISSUES FORUM

Nuclear Renaissance: Risks versus Benefits

BENCHMARK 1

The Author: Valeriya Belan

Form 10B
Linguistic Gymnasia № 164

The Advisor: Nelli Porseva

The Teacher of English
Linguistic Gymnasia № 164

Zelenogorsk

Krasnoyarsk Region

Russia

2008

CONTENTS

I. Energy resources

1. Energy sources availability in the world

2. Pros and cons of different sources of energy

3. Using nuclear energy in different countries

4. People’s opinion about building and using NPSs

II. Nuclear energy generation

1. Nuclear fuel cycle

2. The main risks of nuclear fuel cycle

a) The risk of accidents

b) Danger of proliferation on different stages of using nuclear materials

c) The danger of nuclear terrorism

III. Conclusion

IV. Resources

Introduction

Aim of work was:

· to demonstrate understanding of energy sources used in the world today, their availability, and distinguishing difference between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

· to describe the processes involved in the production of nuclear energy and show places in the cycle where diversion of materials could take place

I. Energy resources

Everybody knows energy is a basis of nearly everything. All the blessings of civilization require energy’s charge. Professor P.K. Oschepkov [1] has counted up that while human history exists, billions of KW-h of energy were used by people. About three quarters of this energy was generated and consumed in the 20th century. A little bit less than a half of it belongs to the last 25 years. What future is waiting for us?

Facts answer this question best. “About 60 kilocalories a year is a price for a person’s comfort in industrial countries.” [1] Such an amount can be obtained only by burning 8-10 tons of good coal. Every day the world’s population increases (every second 3 newborn children appear). By the end of 2050 there will be about 12-14 billion people living on the Earth. It is just easy arithmetic, which makes us think about the problem of energy “famine”.

So, people’s needs in energy are growing rather fast. Nowadays people already use millions of KW-h every day. Tomorrow this figure will grow. The statistics shows that energy production becomes 2 times bigger with every 10 years. It means that by 2050 using energy on the planet will be 8 or 10 times bigger. Our planet is not an endless resource. It is rich in coal, oil and gas, but all these supplies are close to the end. It will take nature 1000 years to produce the resources for only one day’s need in fuel. [1]

The main sources of energy are

· Coal-burning power

· Hydropower

· Wind power

· Geothermal Power

· Nuclear power

· Solar power

Alternative group of methods of energy production includes hydropower, wind power and geothermal power. It is also called the group of “renewable energy”. Renewable sources are able to replenish as quickly as they are used up – they will never run out. [2]

Nuclear energy, natural gas, petroleum, coal, gasoline and fossil fuels belong to the type of non-renewable sources. Non-renewable sources take millions of years to form and need to be regarded [2]. Each type of energy production (including renewable and non-renewable sources) has its own advantages and disadvantages.

On the World Energy Congresses (WEC) held in 1950 – 60s the problem of energy famine and “thermal death” was stated. Nowadays there are not so many pessimistic opinions about it – all the countries recalculated energy resources and expenses of energy for an hour. A real problem is the biosphere pollution by waste products of coal burning which can cause “thermal pollution” and the greenhouse effect. The main enemy is sulphur dioxide – it is a waste product of coal and petroleum burning on millions of power stations. A whole year’s amount of such emission is 130 millions t. By the end of 2050 concentration of carbon gas will have grown twice. That’s why people have to look for new resources of energy – not only because of industrial reasons but also to save nature as human habitat.

1. Energy sources availability in the world

[based on data from 3]

Another type of producing energy which is used by some countries (Japan, for example) is connected with renewable sources.

I have compared pros and cons of different types of energy sources and gathered all of them in one table

2. Pros and Cons of Different Sources of Energy

Kind of Power	Energy production	Advantages	Disadvantages	Optimal usage
Solar Power (renewable) (content.techrepublic.com.com)	Solar power involves converting sunlight into energy we can use. There are two basic types of it: photovoltaic cell or solar cell. Solar thermal power is based on a principle known for centuries: the sun heats the water stored in a dark vessel. The heat created is used to generate steam, which powers a turbine. [4]	is based on a principle known for centuries: it doesn’t requires any special materials, which are hard to be found. [4]	There are two main difficulties with solar energy. First, sunlight reaches the earth’s surface intermittently. Second, in order to collect solar energy at a useful rate, a large surface area is required.	It will be very useful only in the countries with a lot of sunlight and where a period of night is less than a day.
Wind Power (renewable) (www.mikesgarden.co.uk)	Like windmills, wind machines use blades to collect the wind’s energy. Wind following over the blades causes lift, and the blades turn. They are connected to a shaft that turns a generator to produce electricity. Technological progress means that wind turbines are quick and easy to install. [4]	One of the world’s largest wind farms, the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas, has 421 wind turbines generating electricity for more than 200,000 homes per year [4]	Critics say the cost of installing and servicing wind turbines is too high to warrant their large-scale use. [4]	Available only for places which are not protected from the regular wind naturally.
Kind of Power	Energy production	Advantages	Disadvantages	Optimal usage
Hydropower (renewable) (www.osti.gov)	Swiftly flowing water in a big river and water descending rapidly from a very high point carry a great deal of energy. In hydroelectric power stations, the water is channeled through a pipe, which turns blade in a tribune to spin a generator. [4]	Unlike solar or wind energy, hydropower can produce electricity continuously. and during prolonged droughts, hydroelectric projects can be unreliable.	The amount of energy in moving water depends on its flow or fall. “According to Vincent St Louis, a scientist at the University of Alberta, Canada, man-made reservoirs across the world – about quarter of which power hydroelectric plants- together release around one billion tones of carbon dioxide each year. They also release some 70 million tones of methane, a much more potent greenhouse gas. Over a hundred years, St Louis’s figures suggest, these reservoirs will be the source about 7 per cent of the global warming impact of all human activities.” Dams can drown ecosystems.[5]	Energy can be produced only near big rivers.
Kind of Power	Energy production	Advantages	Disadvantages	Optimal usage
Geothermal Power (renewable) (www.reuk.co.uk)	Geothermal energy means harnessing heat from inside the Earth. Where the reservoirs are not accessible, wells up to 1.5 km deep than be drilled. Some geothermal power plants use steam to turn turbines. In others, the hot water heats a special liquid with a lower boiling point than water. The liquid vaporizes and expands, turning a generator. [4]	Where hot water reservoirs exist near the surface, water can be piped directly to where it is needed.	There are few countries with geothermal springs.	Geologists say that, even in countries with great geothermal reserves, this renewable energy source is underused [4]
Nuclear Power (renewable) (www.solcomhouse.com)	Is based on two types of reactions: chain reaction of neutron’s division and reaction of thermonuclear synthesis [7]	A lot of energy can be produced without such an amount of sulfur dioxide which is by-product of getting coal-burning power.	There is a problem connected with reproducing and storage of nuclear wastes – there are only two ways of solving it. A lot of counties have more wastes than any storehouses can keep. The majority of those storehouses are designed for only 50 or 100 years. [6]	Is available for any country. Should be well-protected from any dangerous situations.
Kind of Power	Energy production	Advantages	Disadvantages	Optimal usage
Coal-burning Power (non-renewable) (www.allposters.com)	Producing energy is directly connected with burning coal.	It is possible to say there are no advantages in using this type of energy production unless the country is rich in coal.	It is one of the main reasons of atmosphere pollution. It is impossible to reproduce the whole amount of used coal for nature with the same speed of its spending.	It isn’t recommended to use this type of producing energy. Nearly all countries have already stopped using this method.

[4, page 65], [5, page 30], [6], [7]

According to some calculations alternative energy sources can cover only 8-10% of the world’s energy requirement. This proves that nuclear technology has an advantage in comparison with renewable sources – it produces much more energy than other alternative sources can give.

The problem of choice between those two ways of producing energy is acute enough because of contradictions which appear while revealing all risks or benefits of one or another way of energy generation.

3. Using nuclear energy in different countries

The USA is the leader in the sphere of using nuclear energy.

Country	The number of power units and their capacity (GW = W*10^9)
The USA	109 power units, their capacity: 105,4 GW
France	56 power units, their capacity: 61 GW
Japan	52 power units, their capacity: 44 GW
Germany	20 power units, their capacity: 23,5 GW
Russia	29 power units, their capacity: 21,2 GW

[8, page 20; data of 2000]

Also Canada, Ukraine, Great Britain and the Republic of Korea are in the ten of the countries who have power units on their territory.

[8, page 21]

Nowadays there is a world tendency not to rely on fossil fuels even if the country is rich in it. For example, building of nuclear stations in China is recognized as one of the most effective ways of getting energy in spite of having rich coal and water resources. Its government isn’t worried about people’s protests because the country needs to find new energy sources. Nowadays there are 3 working and 10 building reactors in China. By the end of 2020 the country is going to increase the general capacity to about 50 GW.” [8]

4. People’s opinion about building and using NPSs.

[data from 8]

People’s attitude to nuclear energy is different in different countries:

“The USA – 60% of Americans think that nuclear stations are not so dangerous. Such an opinion is connected with nature pollution concerns and the wish to save energy resources for future generations.

Sweden – 80% of people are for using nuclear energy

The Republic of Korea – 84,4% think that using nuclear energy is necessary

Russia – only 10% really know their own position in choice between words “for” and “against” nuclear energy (Center of Social Information “Kurchatovsky Institute”, [8, page 22] )”

These results are interesting by the fact of difference between the information influence on people’s mind and a real problem. People, who are absolutely against using this way of producing energy often forget that by speaking about nuclear energy minuses they can just make a lot of young people not master such professions as chemists and physicists. Such professions are necessary for normal and safe work of nuclear power stations.

II. Nuclear energy generation

As it is known, there are two ways of producing nuclear energy: reaction of nucleus’s fission and reaction of synthesis.

Originally, all the researches were focused on the creation of nuclear weapon. Nowadays nuclear power is developed only on the basis of NPS with division reactors – mainly with reactors on thermal neutrons which use only one Uranium isotope (²³⁵U) as a fuel. Other Uranium isotope (²³⁸U), which makes its basic part (99,3%) is not so actively used. ²³⁵U which is contained in natural uranium is used in thermal reactors only about ~0,5%. Another part of ²³⁵U is identified as non-taken. [9; page 277]

1. Nuclear fuel cycle

“The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression of nuclear fuel through a series of differing stages. It consists of steps in the front end, which are the preparation of the fuel, steps in the service period in which the fuel is used during reactor operation, and steps in the back end, which are necessary to safely manage, contain, and either reprocess or dispose of spent nuclear fuel. If spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is referred to as a open fuel cycle (or a once-through fuel cycle). Likewise, if the spent fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to as a closed fuel cycle.” [7]

The basic stages of nuclear fuel cycle are:

Open fuel cycle	Closed fuel cycle (with regenerated uranium)	Closed fuel cycle (with regenerated uranium and plutonium)
Mining
Milling
Conversion
Enrichment of UF6
Fuel fabrication
Controlled chain reaction in reactor
Spent fuel storage
Disposal	Reprocessing
-	Re-fabrication of nuclear fuel
-	Plutonium storage	MOX-fuel fabrication
-	Radioactive waste disposal

[9; page 92], [10]

2. The main risks of nuclear fuel cycle are:

• Accidents
• Proliferation
• Nuclear Terrorism

a) Difference between nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors

b)

Although nuclear chain reaction is used both in nuclear power stations and nuclear weapons, they are still different in their nature as in the first case the reaction is controlled while in the second only the first stage is controlled. But uranium enrichment technology has dual nature – typical enrichment in nuclear weapon is more than 90% and in nuclear fuel is less than 4%. It depends only on the owner of the power station where the enrichment is stopped. Here is the main risk of proliferation.

The majority of all reasons why people are afraid of using nuclear energy generation are connected with its possible negative consequences. The lack of information about all pros and cons of nuclear energy creates a lot of myths among people about its danger. “This fear and a fear of weapon is at the top of the list of all fears, connected with our usual life, in spite of the fact smoking, abusing an alcohol and accidents connected with cars kill much more people every day” [1]. But however, the problem of the pollution is more important and the lack of fuel resources changes people’s opinion about using energy of “peaceful atom”.

Nuclear weapon	Nuclear reactor
Depends on fast neutrons	Depends on thermal and delayed neutrons
Uses kilograms of nuclear material	Uses tones of nuclear material
Typical enrichment is > 90%	Typical enrichment is 3-5%
Only initiation is controlled	Controlled with neutron absorbing control rods

[5]

According to the data of this table it is possible to say that nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors are absolutely different in their work – for a nuclear reactor it is impossible to explode like a nuclear weapon

The first suggestions about creating a protection system of nuclear materials were made in 1960s-70s. Officially this decision was made in 1980 by 68 countries. While that period there were more than 150 incidents – such as explosions on the territory of nuclear objects, attempts on scientists who worked in this sphere, thefts of nuclear materials and others, which showed danger of nuclear terrorism. The problem also was very difficult for solving because of rather big number of factors, which can give a chance for terrorists. [5, page 248]

b) Danger of proliferation on different stages of using nuclear materials [9, page 96]

Stage	Opportunity to steal a material	Opportunity to switch	Danger of proliferation
Extraction of ore	Low	High	Low
Conversion in UF6	Low	L\H	Low
Enrichment	High	L\H	High
Nuclear fuel creation	Low	L\H(IAEA)*	L\H(enrichment)
Using the fuel on NPS	Low	L\H	L\H(enrichment)
Storage of nuclear wastes	Low	L\H	L\H(enrichment)
Nuclear wastes reprocessing	High	L\H	High
Burying of wastes	Low	Low	Low

• Big number of personnel makes dangerous level higher. It is so because human factor is one of the most weak in the whole system of safety control.
• One more reason for controlling this sphere is nuclear weapon which was lost because of some reasons. (Two American nuclear bombs being transported by a plane were dumped into the Atlantic Ocean when the plane crashed. Also two American nuclear bombs are in the Pacific Ocean. In 1986 in the Caribbean Sea a submarine, which belonged to the USSR, sank. In 1989 a Russian submarine sank in Norwegian Sea. Both of them held missiles with nuclear warheads) [9; page 248]

c) The danger of nuclear terrorism

There are three types of nuclear terrorism [6], [9]

Type	Description	Possibility rate
Explosion of the nuclear reactor	In this theory it is supposed that a terrorist has nuclear explosive of his own creation or which is got with the help of the third side. Early there was an opinion for nuclear bomb’ creation there should be good knowledge and high level of technology development. It is not so – for terrorists it is not so important to make an explosion of big scales – the result and psychological shock will be much stronger. Terrorists also can use not perfect device, without the aim to make the power of the device bigger.	Nowadays there are no facts some terrorist group is creating nuclear weapon or has it. But scientists think that chance for terrorists to get Plutonium – a waste product of nuclear power reactions - is becoming bigger.
Diversion on nuclear power stations or nuclear sabotage	For diversion on NPS no special information is required. Such diversion can be carried out by insurgents with standard combat training. Psychological shock as the result of such actions will be very strong even without a real explosion.	A lot of terrorist groups threatened to make a diversion on NPS, but nobody did them.
Using nuclear materials	It is supposed that terrorists will make a “dirty bomb” – a device which is created on the base of usual explosive and should distribute radiation on a big territory. For creation this bomb substances of high enrichment are not important. Such weapon also may be used as radioactive aerosol, which is activated in the place with the high population.	It is easier to create such device in comparison with nuclear bomb. But it is rather difficult to distribute radiation on a large territory by using aerosols, and it will also be dangerous for terrorists.

III. Conclusion

· Nowadays such way of producing energy as nuclear power is becoming more and more widespread. A lot of countries even those who have enough nonrenewable sources for energy generation use nuclear power stations. In a lot of them it is caused by the problem of gap between generating and using energy.

· Nuclear power has one main advantage in comparison with others – it can cover such amount of energy, which is necessary for people nowadays. All disadvantages of nuclear energy production are connected with the danger of explosion. This situation can be controlled by creation of reliable protection systems.

· The most dangerous stages of the process of nuclear energy production are stages of enrichment and reprocessing – there are two ways for terrorists to get radioactive materials: nuclear material can be stolen or enriched to the weapon-grade.

.

IV. Resources

1. Gubarev, V.S. and others, “A nuclear Trace”, (Moscow, 1992)

2. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2004. © 1993-2003 Microsoft Corporation

3. Map of world power Industry, the atlas of economic and social world geography, 2006

4. Parr, Robert, “Renewable Energy”, printed in Spotlight # 8, 2007, (Sportlight Verlag GmbH, Planegg/Munchen, Germany)

5. David Adam, “Hydropower’s dirty secret”, printed in Spotlight # 7, 2007

6. Sandilands, Ben, “Warming up to energy below”, © Guardian Newspapers Limited printed in edition of Spotlight # 3, 2007 (Sportlight Verlag GmbH, Planegg/Munchen, Germany)

7. www.wikipedia.org

8. Chekmarev, A.M., “Chemistry; Nuclear energy; fast developing”, (Moscow, 2006)

9. Pshakin G.M. and others, “Nuclear nonproliferation”, (Moscow Engineer Physicist Institute, 2006)

10. U.S. Department of Energy – Office of Public Affairs “Radiological terrorism tutorial”, www.nti.org

11. www.allposters.com

12. www.content.techrepublic.com.com

13. www.mikesgarden.co.uk

14. www.osti.gov

15. www.reuk.co.uk

16. www.solcomhouse.com

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*L\H(IAEA) means from Low to High opportunity depending on the control of IAEA