Content

1. Definitions and classifications of major sources of energy……………...3

2. Changes in the source of energy over the last 100 years…………….…..5

3. Future demands on major sources of energy in the world…………….…8

4. The nuclear fuel cycle……………………………………………………9

5. Main types of nuclear power reactors………………………….….……14

6. Civilian and military use of nuclear energy………………...…………. 16

7. Interview with the specialists from the main power plant

in Zheleznogorsk……………….……………………………………….18

Sources………………………………………..…………………………………..19

The dilemma – Renewable and non-renewable energy sources. What is better? By Anna Kondratyeva

Definitions of major sources of energy

The aim of our research is to study nuclear energy in comparison with the other energy resources, analyze the perspective of their development in the modern world.

Everything in the world exists due to energy. According to Andrew Zimmerman Jones’ definition, energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work [21]. Energy can be divided into different forms: mechanical, chemical, heat, nuclear, radial and electrical energy. People can not destroy or make energy, only to convert it from one form to another one. The source of energy can be energy resources that can be consumed and found in nature.

A variety of natural resources and ways of their economic use allowed us to develop several classifications:

1 Genetic

2 Economic

3 Ecological and some other classifications

The first classification shows the origin of natural resources, the second one – the spheres they are used at. The third classification gives an idea of natural resources as exhausting things and the possibility of their self-renewal. According to the last classification all energy resources can be divided into two groups as it is shown in the table [26].

Nowadays we don’t use only one source of energy. We use fossil fuels, hydroelectric and nuclear resources although fossil fuels still far exceeded any other source. The diagram shows the role of different energy sources used for energy production in 2007. 

Changes in source of energy in the past 100 years

The success of an industrial society i.e., the growth of its economy, the quality of the life-style of the population and the society's impact on the environment depend on the quantities and types of energy resources it has.

The beginning of the previous century was the preparation before great changes that came after 1950 (nuclear power, antibiotics, electronics, plastics, space travel). Looking back we can reveal 3 periods in the development of energy resources. Wood was the predominant energy resource until it was replaced by coal in about 80s. The third era began in the beginning of 20th century - an oil-and-gas era. Natural gas began to compete with oil due to the way of its transportation.

Consumption of energy resources

Oil history

Date	Main events
1859	the first oil hole in Pennsylvania, the USA
The middle of 70s	oil crisis or the epoch of cheap oil (1 ton of oil was 20 $)
1987-1988	the USSR reached a maximum level in oil recovery among all oil-extracting states - 624 million of tons
1920 – 1960	http://pics.prime-tass.ru/ehnergetika/vishka_7.jpg many other countries began to develop oil industry – Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Libya, and Nigeria. (Today they are the largest oil-extracting states.)

Coal history

Date	Main events
19^th - 20^th century	technological development helped improve the safety of colliers and the productive capacity of collieries
Between 19 and 20 centuries	all coal mining was concentrated in two countries: Russia and the USA
20^th century	the consumption of coal grew because of three countries: China, India and Japan
1990 - 2000	a situation of "a gas pause
1988	Russia mined 426 million tons of coal

http://ru.wikipedia.org

Solar history

Date	Main events
1839	Alexander Edmond Becquerel discovered photovoltaic effect
1905	The famous physicist Albert Einstein explained the principle on which photovoltaics are based.
1950	People began to use solar cells.
1958	The first American satellite program called Avanguard was conducted.
1970	Dr. Elliot Berman designed a less expensive solar cell
1974	Russian scientists started industrial production of solar batteries on heterostructures
the beginning of the 21st century	A splash in development of solar power Besides global state programs solar energy can be used by individuals. For example: photogalvanic mouse Sole Mio, many companies can save money on batteries. a car working on the sun energy a motor scooter with the electric motor on photogalvanic cells, the product of the company SunRed - Solar Bikе The solar battery is on the roof of this vehicle and it also uses several air turbines in a forward part of "machine".

The history of nuclear energy

Date	Main events
19^th century	nuclear radiation was discovered
1960s	people tried to use the atom as an alternative to fossil-fuel to solve environmental problems caused by using fossil fuels and economical ones (the cost of electricity began to climb).
early decades of the twentieth century	http://www.alternate-energy-sources.com/images/nuclearreaction3.jpg brought sustained scientific research in atomic physics, particularly in Europe
1930s	the experiments of bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons
1957	The first commercial nuclear power plant came on line in Shippingport, Pennsylvania
1979	Three Mile Island nuclear plant accident in Pennsylvania
1986	the meltdown at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine
1959	The first powered surface ships was launched
1954.	The first nuclear submarine was completed in

History of gas

Date	Main events
2006	extraction of gas increased on 3,2 % - up to 2,8 trillion a cube due to Russia, he USA, Iran and Algeria
1821	http://nauka.relis.ru/06/0108/term-4.jpg William A. Hart drilled a 27 foot well to obtain natural gas.
After 1890s	Street lamps were converted to electricity
1885	Robert Bunsen invented a burner that mixed air with natural gas. The gas was used for cooking and warming buildings.
1891	The first lengthy pipelines were built (120miles). It carried gas from fields in central Indiana to Chicago
1950s – 1960s	thousands of miles of pipelines were constructed in the USA

Biomass history

http://www.teamsantarosa.com/images/header-bioenergy.jpg

In 19 – 20 century the use of biomass increased to some extent because of technological innovations and demand from rapidly growing population. In 1918 the Pasteur Institute of Paris experimentally proved that 10 gallons of ethanol could be produced per ton of seaweed.

Changes in the environment

The 20th century is a unique period in environmental history, because it caused enormous environmental changes in the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the biosphere and in politics and ideas. In 1950^th people began to pay more attention to environmental problems caused by man’s activity. For example, Japan, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland were intensively polluted because of many coal-fired power plants. In 1980^th air quality was greatly changed. Due to environmental, economic and political reasons the fuel mix became a bit cleaner and coal was replaced with oil in many applications. And many developed countries count on renewable energy and its related technology.

In 1950 California passed the law on cleanliness of air and the whole country followed them. During 1970 and 1980 the same policy was adopted in all industrially developed and many developing countries. Since that time power stations have been taking measures to clear smoke which is produced by them. They remove dioxide of sulfur from smoke. In order to make air pollution less power stations must have special devices but they are expensive and not all countries can allow them. Germany was more successful: there issue of SO2 was reduced from 1987 to 80 %, emissions of oxide of nitrogen - on 75 % and dust on 98 %. However these achievements demanded an investment of 34 billion marks.
But a great problem is in developing countries that don’t have any
laws on cleanliness of air or don’t follow them. For example, China is the largest world consumer of coal. Because of air pollution people suffer from lungs diseases, forests are strongly damaged, Acidity of the ground is raised. Russia don’t have enough equipment to clean smoke using black oil as the basic fuel. The next important problem is consequences of burning organic fuel such as throwing in to atmosphere heavy metals as lead, mercury, cadmium and arsenic.

So it is not an easy task to find the best solutions to human energy needs, when all energy resources such as solar, wind, and biomass, and nuclear energy as well offer promise. No matter where people find the energy to support their cultures and societies, humankind's inventiveness and scientific research have no bounds to find the next step in the energy history.

Future demands on major sources of energy in the world

According to International Statistics Database and International Energy Annual 1999, (Washington, DC, February 2001), we can observe that the share of oil in the world power balance will not decrease, the share of natural gas will increase steadily, the energy from renewed sources in 2020 will be the same as in 1999, the share of nuclear energy will decrease a bit, the share of coal will increase.

The use of energy resources in the world in future

In the nearest future the leaders will be oil, natural gas and coal among all energy resources. Despite of the fact that easy oil comes to an end, demand on oil will remain 2030. In the world power market there is a transition from gas to coal. From 2007 to 2025 consumption of coal in the world will show an increase of about 1.5 % a year. Unification of coal business with metallurgical, power and transport business will be observed. Coal can be used not only as fuel, but also as the most valuable natural chemical raw material.

Today the largest importers of coal in the European market are Germany and Great Britain; in Asian market - Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The largest exporters – are Australia, China, Indonesia, the republic of South Africa and Russia. Modern tendencies in development of coal industry were established – to strengthen coal business, to combine efforts of metallurgical, power and transport business. These corporations get the coal companies. In Canada after 2010 a lot of atomic power stations will be replaced by hydroelectric power station.

Coal will play an important role in electric power industry in the regions where alternative kinds of fuel are not profitable. It is very important for the developing countries of Asia, especially for China and India. The statistics about China and India are the following: till 2020 they will mine about 33% of the world energy resources and they will increase the use of coal up to 90% of the world coal resources.

Tasks for Future:

Ø to improve the process of coil mining ( washing, drying, bricketing)

Ø to improve the equipment

Ø to develop and use new technologies

Ø to control the emissions

New biomass conversion technologies are promising in future, especially added-value products such as biodiesel, ethanol, and methanol. With the help of some research and development projects scientists will develop gasification and pyrolisis processes. Other initiatives to develop alcohol fuel production processes are also under way. In Kazakhstan a plant on manufacture of bioethanol with the capacity of 57 thousand tons was built not long ago. The product is added to petrol in order to reduce emissions of harmful substances. In the nearest future they plan to build some more plants to produce more biofuel. Kazakhstan will be able to build about 25 – 30 such plants and produce about 2.6 million of tons of biofuels a year. Next year Russia is building such plant to export biofuel to Europe, where from 2010 the use of ecologically pure biofuel - 5,75 % in total amount of motor fuel will be obligatory [22]. Some countries try to re-distribute the use of energy resources on order to decrease their consumption. (e.g the USA) 

According to the research study of Greenpeace and EC, additional financing of renewable power industry in the amount of 22 mlrd dollars per year may result in annual savings in the conventional power industry in the amount of 202 mlrd dollars per year. One of the main task is to provide 50% reduction in harmful emissions by 2050.

According to the statistics of IAEA and WNA world demands on uranium will grow – from 62 thousand in 2000 to 75 thousand in 2020. People will be able to use discovered stocks of uranium during 60 years. We can increase the period till some thousand years by using the closed nuclear fuel cycle. Russia wants to boost nuclear energy production to about 25 % of total electricity generation over next 20 years from 16%. Many countries that never used nuclear energy before are eager to do it now, for example Turkey.

American specialists believe that total power of nuclear power stations in the world will increase from 371 GW(e) in 2005 to 438 GW in 2030 [15]. During the last decade there is a tendency ofprivatization of state companies [4].

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nucfuelcycle.gif

The nuclear fuel cycle is a process that starts with the mining of uranium, its use before and after the reactor. The cycle consists of two steps: "front end” and "back end". The first one is the preparation of uranium to be used in a reactor. The last step is the preparation for disposal of the highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel. There are two main types of fuel cycle: once-through and closed. In the first type the spent fuel is stored and in the closed cycle the spent fuel material is used once more and produces energy as new fuel. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is not allowed in some countries (e.g. the USA)

The front end

Mining and milling is the process to produce uranium concentrate that is known as “yellowcake” - dry powder-form material. Uranium is discovered by geophysical techniques. It is extracted through traditional mining in open pit and underground methods similar to those used for mining other metals. Uranium ore removal depends on the characteristics of the deposit – close to the surface and deep underground. Uranium deposits close to the surface are recovered with the help of the open pit mining method, and underground mining methods can be used for deep deposits. Also the ore can be mined by in situ recovery, a process that dissolves the uranium while still underground and then pumps a

uranium-bearing solution to the surface.

After mining, ore is transported to a nearby mill for processing. Today the dominant producers of uranium are Australia, C

anada, South Africa and China.

Uranium Suppliers ($80/kg U)

Сountry	%
Australia	28
Kazakhstan	20
Canada	14
South Africa	10
Brazil, Namibia	8
Russia	6
Uzbekistan	4
United States, Mongolia	3
Niger, Ukraine	2

Conversion.

After milling, yellowcake requires further processing that depends on the type of the reactor for which it will be used. It can be converted into powdered uranium dioxide (UO₂) or uranium hexafluoride (UF₆). If it is converted to UO₂, the fuel is now ready to be fabricated into fuel pellets for CANDU reactors. If it is converted to UF₆, it must undergo two more steps, enrichment and subsequent conversion to enriched UO₂, before it can be finally pressed into usable fuel pellets for light water reactors.

Enrichment

Natural uranium is made up of two different uranium isotopes, approximately 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235. The majority of modern reactors require uranium fuel with a U-235 content of 3 - 5%. So uranium enrichment is the process that increases the U-235 concentration from 0.7% to 3 - 5%. There are two commercial enrichment methods: gaseous diffusion and centrifuge. Some years ago plants used gaseous diffusion but it was not profitable because of high electricity requirement and large size of the plants [7].

Today the number of the plants using centrifugation is increasing. According to centrifuge method, the gaseous UF₆ is placed in a centrifuge. The rapid spinning flings the heavier U-238 atoms to the outside of the centrifuge, leaving UF₆ in the centre enriched with a higher proportion of U-235 atoms. Some centrifuges (a cascade) are placed together to get the desired concentration of U-235. In the gaseous diffusion process, U-235 and U-238 atoms are separated by feeding UF₆ in gaseous form through several walls

with small holes. For more information see Uranium Enrichment capacities

in the world.

Fuel fabrication

It is the last stage in the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle. It begins by pressing powdered UO₂ into small cylindrical shapes and baking them at a high temperature (up to 1400°C) to make hard ceramic pellets. They are placed into hollow metal tubes that are then bundled as fuel assemblies. Then nuclear fuel is loaded into a reactor and allows nuclear reactions

to generate electricity.

The back end

Interim Storage

The back end includes the interim storage, spent duel reprocessing and final deposition. The main aim is to unload the “spent” fuel from the reactor and to store in a special place while its radioactivity and heat subside. At the end of the cycle the reactor is shut down for refueling. From the reactor site, spent fuel is transported by road, rail or sea to either an interim storage site or a reprocessing plant. When spent fuel is unloaded from the reactor it contains 96% uranium, 1% plutonium and 3% fission products. Spent fuel looks the same as fresh fuel. It can be stored

either at the reactors site or in a special place. The spent fuel rods are usually stored in water or boric acid in order to be cooled, usually from 3 to 8 years or more.

There are two ways for spent fuel:

• reprocessing to recover the usable portion of it
• long-term storage and final disposal without reprocessing.

Reprocessing

http//www:wikepedia.ru

The stages of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and their arrangement in the world

Final Disposition

It is the process of the safe disposal and isolation of spent fuel from the reactor or wastes from the reprocessing plant to diminish the radioactivity to a safe. It can be stored for 30 or 50 years before its disposal. IAEA control the transportation of all spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel. In this picture the places of fuel cycle are shown.

The unused energy content of spent fuel is recovered in order to be used again in future. It reduces the volume and long-term radiotoxicity of the waste that requires disposal. So these fissile and fertile materials can be chemically separated and recovered from the spent fuel. The recovered uranium and plutonium can be recycled for use as nuclear fuel. Nowadays plants in Europe are reprocessing spent fuel from utilities in Europe and Japan. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is not permitted in the USA due to the perceived danger of nuclear proliferation. The storage can be under wet or dry conditions. Dry storage is spreading today. The spent fuel is put into dry shield casks and kept with a required temperature.

The doctor of Technical Sciences, U. S. Cherepnin considers that “Today to develop nuclear energy we must solve four main problems:

• The cost of energy produced by nuclear power plant. This problem can be solved by building reactors of new generation.
• Security of the nuclear power plant, nuclear fuel cycle, transportation of nuclear and fuel.
• Wastes and the disposal of the wastes. The disadvantages of the open-through cycle.
• Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons”. [14]

International Nuclear Safety Center at ANL, Aug 2005

The total number of operating nuclear reactors in the world was 506 in 2005.

Keeping the fuel cycle civil

The civil nuclear fuel cycle was developed from military programs and from naval use of reactors to power warships, especially submarines. Nuclear energy use is increasing today and people must be sure that this kind of energy is used for civil needs not for nuclear weapons. In 1960s the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was established, the main aim of which is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. The NPT is based on an agreement between the five main nuclear weapons states (China, Russia, the USA, France and UK) and the other countries interested in nuclear technology. The deal was that assistance and cooperation in developing nuclear power and related technologies would depend on pledges, backed by international scrutiny, that no plant or material would be diverted to weapons use [12].

In addition, the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) was set up in 1957 to keep track of the movement of nuclear materials through fuel cycle facilities in other countries and which verify inventories. When uranium goes through a certain process (e.g. conversion or enrichment), it is difficult to distinguish country-origin atoms of uranium from atoms of uranium supplied by other countries. The organization tracks that there is no loss or diversion of nuclear material during transportation and processing. Everything must be done to prevent from nuclear terrorism.

Types of nuclear reactors

Nuclear reactor is a technology where a chain process of nuclear fission of heavy metals is carried out. [5, p 313]. The first nuclear reactor was built in the University of Chicago in 1942. All nuclear reactors operate on the same basic principle, they can be different according to their design. The common components of them are viz fuel, moderator, coolant and control rods. The most common types are Boiling Water Reactor and Pressurized Water Reactor.

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) heats water in the core and the water turns into steam. The steam goes directly to the turbine outside the reactor. The disadvantage of this type is that any fuel leak might make the water radioactive and that radioactivity can reach the turbine and the rest of the loop.

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) keeps water under pressure from boiling, even at 300 C. The pressurized water is pumped through a closed system of pipes. Heat from the system warms up water in the secondary system which starts boiling and its turns the turbine. Then the water in the primary system is cooled to some extent and then comes back to the reactor core.

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) is known as CANDU reactor (Canadian deuterium uranium). It uses heavy water. Heavy water allows natural uranium to be used as the fuel. The advantage of the CANDU design is that refueling can take place during operation, whereas PWR and BWR must shut down in order to refuel. This feature allows high availability but also increases the complexity of operation. [7, p 18 – 19]

Gas Cooled Reactors (GCR) can be of two types – the Magnox (because of magnesium alloy that is used) and the Advanced Gas-cooled reactor. They use carbon dioxide as the coolant to carry the heat to the turbine, and graphite as the moderator. A graphite moderator allows natural uranium or slightly enriched uranium to be used as fuel.

The Light Water Graphite Reactor (LWGR) is a hybrid design using ordinary water (light water) as the coolant and graphite as the moderator. All these reactors are thermal reactors; most of the fission is caused by thermal neutrons.

The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is used fast neutrons that have very high kinetic energies. Fast reactors create more neutrons per fission than thermal reactors and make better use of them because the probability of neutron capture decreases at higher neutron energies. Breeder reactors were operated only in France, India, Japan and the Russian Federation [7]. Fast breeder reactors work at a high temperature and they need a special coolant for e.g. liquid sodium. The reactor has a core of plutonium that is surrounded by rods of U-238. The U-238 nuclei absorb neutrons from the core and are transformed into plutonium (P-239).

БН/800 is under construction, Russia http://www.wikipedia.ru

Source: Rosenergoatom №1, 2007

The reactor in a nuclear power plant does the same thing that a boiler does in a fossil fuel plant - it produces heat. The main parts of a reactor are the core, control rods, a moderator, a coolant, and shielding. The core of a reactor contains the uranium fuel. For a light water reactor the core contains about 75 tones of uranium. The neutrons produced by fission move at great speeds. They are slowed down by a moderator. Slow neutrons collide with the nuclei of U-235 to cause fission and keep the reaction working. To control the chain reaction control rods are used into the core of the reactor. They absorb neutrons and slow down the reaction - pulled out they allow it to speed up again. In this way the chain reaction is controlled. Fissions occurring in the reactor generate an enormous amount of heat. A liquid or gas coolant carries this heat away from the reactor to a boiler where steam is made. Shielding that is made of steel prevents radiation from escaping into the environment.

Today the modern tendency in Russia is to build the reactor of 4^th generation with new constructive materials and new kinds of fuel. The advantages of it are its cost price, short period of building (not more than 4 years) and the possibility to organize замкнутый fuel cycle. “New kinds of fuel must not be very expensive…”, said Fedor Mitenkov, the academician of Russian Academy of Science. We are aimed to find such kinds of fuel that are with high-dense and easy to convert. Now the basic fuel is oxide. Nitrite fuel belongs to perspective fuel with high dense. Fedor

Mitenkov emphasized the importance of the development of Russian nuclear energy:

• To improve existing fuel for PWR, CANDU
• To develop new fuel for present and future reactors
• To develop new fuel for the reactors of the 4^th generation [10, p.7].

Civilian and military use of nuclear energy worldwide

Today people understand the importance of nuclear energy as means of generating electricity. But on the other hand we are worried about the enlarged interest worldwide in acquiring nuclear technology under the premise of using it for peaceful purposes. In 1953 President Dwight Eisenhower gave "Atoms for Peace" speech to serve the peaceful pursuits of mankind ... to apply atomic energy to the needs of agriculture, medicine and other peaceful activities. A special purpose would be to provide abundant electrical energy in the power-starved areas of the world. After that the USA Congress wrote Atomic Energy Act the aim of which was to develop atomic energy for peaceful purposes:

• Research and test reactors
• Critical assemblies
• Fast reactors
• Icebreakers

It also can be used:

• to reduce soil erosion
• to improve water use efficiency
• to control insect pests
• to improve livestock production
• to use in radiation medicine (diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy)

Unique use of not weapon uranium is carried out only in powerful nuclear reactors. Today all over the world more than 1000 nuclear reactors are used:

• Approximately 280 small reactors are used for scientific researches and manufacture of isotopes for medicine and industry.
• More than 400 reactors are used for sea vessels, mainly, nuclear submarines.
• More than 430 powerful reactors are used for manufacture of the electric power

All uranium made today, is used to produce the electric power. Its use in these purposes already competes to coal and with natural gas. But nuclear material (uranium or plutonium) can be used for a nuclear weapons program (e.g. spreading radioactive material via a “dirty bomb”). Then, during the process of enrichment the fuel that nuclear power plants burn is created. It involves uranium enrichment. The same process used to enrich uranium for power plant fuel (usually 4.4% enriched) can be used to enrich uranium for weapons (highly enriched uranium = over 20% enriched). Moreover, spent fuel includes plutonium. If we separate it from the spent fuel, it can be used for weapons. So it must be guarded carefully.

“Little boy”

http://www.zamandayolculuk.com/cetinbal

Since World War II there were some cases when countries pieced together nuclear weapons from the fuel from "peaceful research reactors” (e.g. France, China, and India). Iraq and North Korea were likely to do it.

“Fat Man”

http://www.zamandayolculuk.com/cetinbal/FJ/fatmanx1.jpg

It takes about 15 pounds of plutonium-239 or uranium-235 to fashion a crude nuclear device. The technology to enrich the isotopes is available for about one million dollars [17].

“Fat man”

http://www.zamandayolculuk.com/cetinbal

The construction of research reactors and commercial nuclear plants can be regarded as a threat to peace. This "provocation" was enough to justify the Israeli bombing of Iraq's French-built Osirik reactor in 1981, and was one of the alleged reasons for the Gulf War in 1991. The suspicion that your neighbor is capable to make nuclear weapons can lead to the beginning of the war. “Little Boy”.

It is very difficult to trace whether the country uses it for civilian or military use. So people must be sure that international agreements and agencies are set up and monitor the use of nuclear reactors. Such organization can be The International Atomic Energy Agency [18].

Countries likely to have increased power needs (based on population growth):

Indonesia		Pakistan		Thailand
Ethiopia		Philippines		Turkey
Egypt		Saudi Arabia		Sudan
Nigeria		Bangladesh		Yemen
Congo		Vietnam		Uganda
Iran		Tanzania

The world’s known nuclear club is comprised of the United States, Russia, China, France, Britain, India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea [26]

International efforts must be undertaken to minimize the threat of RDD use.

IAEA Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Radiological Sources was published in January 2004. GTRI (Global Threat Reduction Initiative) identify, secure, recover and facilitate the disposition of vulnerable high-risk nuclear and radiological materials around the world that pose a potential threat to the United States and the international community. To prevent the illicit movement of nuclear material controls must be tightened and detection must be improved, including intelligence sharing. According to the statistics of IAEA by 2025 the share of nuclear energy will have decreased in the total production of electro energy in the world. But in the other hand, total power of energy power station will increase (from 360 GW in 2004 to 366 GW in 2025) due to the building of new blocks and the extension of the period of their exploitation 94]. The period of life of power energy station is 30 – 40 years, but it can be much longer. The specialists try to extend the period of exploitation. In the 21 century nuclear renaissance means to develop the program “Atom for peace” and to cut down the use of nuclear weapons.

Interview with the specialists from the plant in Zheleznogorsk

During the Kurchatov’s reading that took place at our school from the 30th f January till the 1st of February. Senior students. from School for Cosmonautics had a chance to meet Director General of Mining and Chemical Combine, Peter Gavrilov, the mayor of Zheleznogorsk, Peter Pimashkov, representatives from Tomsk Polytechnic Institute, ecologists from Krasnoyarskiy Krai and many other scientists. The students asked different questions sitting at the round table and the guests tried to give full answers.

- We know that mining-chemical plant is a unique underground atomic plant which has no analogue in the world. What can you tell us about the history of the plant?

- In 1950 in the USSR Council of Ministers decided to build the plant with location in Krasnoyarsk Territory. The Mining and chemical combine (MCC) is known to be a Federal State-owned Unitary Enterprise under jurisdiction of the Federal Atomic Energy (Rosatom) under the government of the Russian

Federation. Since the year 1995 the defense order for plutonium production has never

been placed any more; this resulted in the works conversion.

- What are the main activities of the plant?

- spent nuclear fuel (SNF) transportation and storing;

- heat and electric power generation by an atomic power plant in order to provide a city of Zheleznogork with central heating and hot water;

- fabrication of single-crystal silicon and other products for civil purposes;

- decommission of defense-oriented facilities;

- construction of a “dry” storage facility and implementation of upgrades to the existing “wet” storage facility for irradiated nuclear fuel;

- construction of the Polycrystalline and Semiconductor Plant;

- How many people are working there?

- Currently the enterprise employs more than 8000 employees.

- It is well know that there are some main productions on MCP. One of them is the reactor

plant.

- This reactor plant contains of three reactors. All of them are uranium-graphite and work on thermal neutrons of the cannel type with water cooling system. The first reactor was started in 1958, the second – in 1961. Both of them were activated with river burial of chilled water. The third reactor was started in 1964. It has circulated system of chilled water. The heat of this reactor is used for central heating and hot-water supply in Zheleznogorsk city. For the first time in the world the usage of nuclear energy for the central heating and hot-water supply was used on MCP. The first and the second reactors were stopped in 1992 and now they are suspended. But the decision of stopping the third reactor has been made too.

After a short pause

- It was for the first time worldwide and in Russia, when utilization of nuclear energy was

used to warm in order to supply 100000-inhabitant city with central heating and hot

water.

- What are you plans for future?

- First of all, Mining and chemical Combine will try to develop international cooperation in the following directions:

- improvement of the nuclear material protection, control and accounting system;

- creation of new jobs for the personnel released due to the defense funding reduction within the Program “Nuclear Cities Initiative”;

- collaboration with the US Department of Defense to monitor the shutdown reactors;

- radio ecological investigations in the Yenisey River;

- construction of an alternative power source for the city of Zheleznogorsk.

- Well, thank you for very interesting information. We wish success for your enterprise and

hope that it will be more prosperous in future.

Sources

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comlex” Magazine Analytic. <http://www.kisi.kz>

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4. V. V. Kudinov, L. B. Preobrazhenskaya "Nuclear energy of the world: modern state and forecast of development”, Magazine Energy: economy, technology, ecology

October/2005

5. Kolpakov P. E. Basis of nuclear physics. Educational text-book for pedagogical universities. Moscow., “Education”, 1968

6. Simagin Yu. A. Economical and social geography of the world: Educational text-book for high students and university-entrants. – Moscow. ARKTI, 2001

7. Nuclear Energy Today, Nuclear Energy Agency Organization for economic Co-operation and development, OECD 2003 2005 <www.nea.fr>

8. “Reactor plant: to give heat to the city” (Interview with the chief engineer of the plant, Sergey Peshkov, p 6 – 7), Magazine: Newscast / Bulletin of the Mountain Chemical Industrial Combine №18 (15 October 2007)

9. “Situation is under control” (Interview with the deputy director of the plant of capital building, Petr Vasilyevich Protasov, p 3) Magazine: Bulletin of the Mountain Chemical Industrial Combine №16 (17 September 2007)

10. “Our motto is security!” (Interview with the head of the technical department of the plant, Gennadiy Chuvatov, p 6 -7), Newscast / Bulletin of the Mountain Chemical Industrial Combine №16 (17 September 2007)

11. Yu. N. Gladkiy, O. V. Sokolov Economical and social geography – Moscow.: Education, 1999, p. 26 – 36

12. V. P. Maksakovskiy Geographical scene of the world (Part 1) – Yaroslavl: Upper Volga, 1998

14. http://www.nikiet.ru/rus/publications/new_age.html

15. http://www.promved.ru/articles/article.phtml?id=1002&nomer=37

16. http://disarmament.un.org/wmd/npt/]I

17. http://www.neis.org/literature/Brochures/weapcon.htm

18. http://www.iaea.org/

19. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/imgnuk/pwr.gif

20. http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/whatsenergy.html

21. http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/energy.htm

22. http://www.worldenergy.ru/index.php?id=20_41_2164.

23. <http://www:news.yahoo.com>

Other resources:

24. CD Energy of atom in the heart of Siberia. Mountain Chemical Combine. Authors: Pavel Morozov, Sergey Voznesensky, Bureau of public information, 2004

25. Video cassette. Ecology. Unconventional power engineering. Video studio “KVART”,

Phone: (095)158-8923, 158-7303

26. Educational electronic edition Economical geography of the world, Multimedia edition on Geography for pupils of the 10^th form…, Authors of the educational material: V. P. Maksakovskiy, S. A. Gorohov and others.