Zheleznogorsk CIF 2008 Benchmark 2

Atomenergoprom

It is a company that unites Russian civil nuclear industry. It was formed in 2007 and includes Rosenergoatom, TVEL, Tekhsnabexport, Atomenergomash and Atomstroyexport (a nuclear constructor for overseas projects). On the 17th of April in 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin approved the document to create AtomEnergoProm (AEP) in order to unite the most significant nuclear enterprises:

AtomEnergoMash (AEM), nuclear power plant

construction

AtomStroyExport (ASE), nuclear power plant

construction abroad

Rosenergoatom, nuclear power operations
Technabsexport (Tenex), uranium extraction and enrichment
TVEL, uranium extraction and nuclear fuel production

These enterprises work as market oriented companies except Rosenergoatom.
Aleksey Grigoriev of Tenex said that “Within a few days, executives could be named for the top positions in AEP and by the end of the year, or early in 2008, the state should have completed paperwork to allow AEP to "work in full swing." [4]

Rosenergoatom

It is a Russian nuclear power stations operator which is controlled by Atomenergoprom. The company was organized in 1992 by the Presidential decree "On operating organization of nuclear power plants in Russian Federation". In 2007 Russian Parliament wrote the law "On the peculiarities of the management and disposition of the property and shares of organizations using nuclear energy and on relevant changes to some legislative acts of the Russian Federation". Rosenergoatom controls 10 nuclear power plants.

The Federal Service for Environmental,

Technological, and Nuclear Oversight (FSAN),

formely Gosatomnadsor (GAN)

In 1990 the responsibility for nuclear weapons safety was placed on Gosatomnadsor (GAN). Gosatomnadsor is the Russian Federal Inspectorate for Nuclear and Radiation Safety. In 2004 it renamed by presidential decree. Today it is the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological, and Nuclear Oversight (FSAN). The main tasks : the regulation of nuclear activity, including the development of regulatory guidelines for nuclear and radiation safety, material control and accounting, physical protection, radioactive waste management, and industrial safety; inspection activities, involving the verification of compliance at facilities with set regulations; licensing; and assessment, including the making of

recommendations to other agencies and the government.

PIRcenter

Pircenter in Moscow is an independent center of political investigations that deals with scientific, information, educational, publishing and consulting activity. It was formed in 1994. The main aim is to provide international safety, control armament and nonproliferation of weapons of massive destruction.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), its role and history.

The IAEA is the world’s center of cooperation in the nuclear field. It was organized in 1957. The headquarters of the IAEA is in Vienna. Operational liaison and regional offices are located in Geneva, Switzerland; New York, USA; Toronto,

Canada; and Tokyo, Japan. The IAEA runs and supports

research centers and scientific laboratories in Vienna and Seibersdorf, Austria; Monaco; and Trieste, Italy.

The starting point was President Eisenhower’s address to the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1953. He suggested creating the organization which would be able to promote peaceful use of nuclear energy and ensure people that the organization would not serve any military purposes.

The IAEA works for the safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology in the modern world. The main role is to contribute to international peace and security, and to the World's Millennium Goals for social, economic and environmental development. The Agency works with its Member States and many partners in the world. The main part of its activity is connected with security of nuclear wastes and use of nuclear technology exclusively in the peace purposes. It also passes nuclear technology to state-members to use it in medicine, agriculture, industry and other spheres. The Agency collaborates with ФАО. IAEA iscontrolled by OON.

Today there are 35 members in the Agency. The IAEA Secretariat is a team of 2200 professional and support staff from more than 90 countries. The Agency is led by Director General Mohamed ElBaradei who is elected every four years and six Deputy Directors General who head the major departments.

The objectives:

Ø to development nuclear energy and use nuclear energy in the peace purposes;

Ø to realize the policy of disarmament all over the world;

Ø to maintenance a guarantee that nuclear materials and the equipment, intended for peace use, are not applied in the military purposes;

Ø to supervise non-distribution of the nuclear weapon;

Ø to grant the information on all aspects of a nuclear science and technology;

Ø to help countries in case of emergency connected with radiation;

History:

The IAEA was created in 1957 when the nation was full

of fears and expectations after the discovery of nuclear

energy. The ideas of President Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" speech helped shape the IAEA. The Statute was approved by 81 nations unanimously in October 1956. The Statute outlines the three pillars of the Agency's work - nuclear verification and security, safety and technology transfer.

In 1958 it was impossible for IAEA to solve some problems. After Cuban missile crisis in 1962, the USA and the USSR tried to find common solution in some aspects of nuclear arms control. In 1961 the IAEA opened its Laboratory in Seibersdorf, Austria, and creatied a channel for cooperative global nuclear research.

In 1961 the Agency signed a trilateral agreement with Monaco and the Oceanographic Institute headed by Jacques Cousteau for research on the effects of radioactivity in the sea, and created the IAEA's Marine Environment Laboratory. According to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear weapons (NPT), the number of declared nuclear weapon states stopped at five in 1968 (USA, Russia, UK, France and China). And the others are required to forswear the nuclear weapons option and to conclude comprehensive safeguards agreements with the IAEA on their nuclear materials. In 1970 it was clear that the NPT was accepted by almost all of the main industrial countries and by the majority of developing countries.

In 1973 the oil crisis happened and the interest to nuclear power increased. The IAEA's functions were very important. The number of nuclear power stations was growing till Chernobyl accident in 1986. In 1988 the IAEA and UN Food and Agricultural Organization joined forces with other agencies to eradicate New World Screwworm - which spreads a deadly livestock disease. The radiation-based technology to eradicate the worm was developed at the Agency's Seibersdorf Laboratory.

In 1995 the NPT was made permanent. The Agency had to solve the problems connected with the nuclear arms race - verification of the peaceful use or storage of nuclear material from dismantled weapons and surplus military stocks of fissile material, control of nuclear warships dumped in the Arctic and the safety of former nuclear test sites in Central Asia and the Pacific.

The IAEA has an important role in the world. It is responsible for the implementation of safeguards between countries. Its efforts are to strengthen its safeguards system through the adoption of the Model Additional Protocol. The Agency clearly demonstrates its utility as an experienced, effective and necessary multilateral mechanism.

Multilateral treaties related to nuclear energy

Today with the rapid growth of nuclear materials (about 27,000 nuclear warheads are worldwide) mankind understands the necessity of the documents and organizations that have the power of control and prevent nation from the sequences of nuclear war and provide people with safe future. There are many international Treaties related to nuclear energy. A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely states and international organizations. [12] There are different names of the treaties: treaties, international agreements, protocols, conventions, covenants, exchanges of letters, and others. Treaties can only be made between sovereign states.

Name of the Treaty	Date, when it entered into force	Number of participants	The aim of the Treaty	Some peculiarities
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)	1970	187 The major countries that have ratified the treaty: There are five Nuclear Weapon States: China, France, Russia, UK, US.	- to prohibit the countries (except NWS) to have nuclear weapons - to transfer NW or encourage other countries to acquire nuclear weapons - to maintain peaceful use of nuclear energy - to promote disarmament	There are five countries which didn’t sign the term of nonproliferation treaty and agreements: India, North Korea, Israel, Pakistan and Cube. South Korean scientists made experimental enrichment of uranium in 2000. Earlier they were able to get plutonium. All works were made in state laboratories but authorities didn’t know about the research. Iran violated the terms of nonproliferation treaties and agreements in 2004. Iran gives incomplete and unauthentic information about its nuclear activity. Iran didn’t informed IAEA about research with usage of special centrifugal machine which could product material for nuclear weapon. There was a large amount of highly enriched uranium in Libya which was found out by IAEA. There were 13 kilos of uranium-1235 and 3 kilos of natural uranium. Korean national-democratic republic joined to NPT in 1985, left it in 1993, then joined in 1994 and again left NPT in 2003. South Africa made the atomic bomb and then willingly rejected its weapon program, destroyed the charges and cut down elaboration in this sphere. North Korea announced about a year ago that it had a nuclear weapon, and the US intelligence chief warned that Iran could have one within 10 years. Laivellin Thompson and Andrey Gromiko are signing NPT, 1968 http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/0305/ijpe/signing.jpg
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty	1997, adopted in 180 days	Signed by 155 countries, ratified by 60 countries	To ban all nuclear test everywhere	A worldwide monitoring system was established to check water, air and soil fro signals of nuclear explosion. The treaty is reliable because the countries check each other.
South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga)	11 December, 1986	13	To ban: -to make and to get any nuclear explosives -to purchase split materials and the equipment, -to place in the territory nuclear explosives -to spend tests in the territory of nuclear explosives, -to help and to encourage any state to spend such tests; ·to bury radioactive wastes and other radioactive substances in territorial waters and the high sea.
African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty ( Treaty of Pelindaba)	11 April, 1996	50 African Governments, 2 Nuclear Nations + France	To ban nuclear weapons, their tests and purchases on the territory of Africa	http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/African_Nuclear_Weapon_Free_Zone_Signators.png Free-Zone of the Treaty is shown in green, and the remaining states of the African Union in yellow.
The Seabed Arms Control Treaty	18 May 1972 Place of adoption: London, Moscow, Washington	95 countries	To ban on the bottoms of the seas and oceans any nuclear weapons and explosive materials	France, Israel and Pakistan are not members of the Treaty Depositaries: Russia, UK, US
Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear – Weapon – Free Zone / Bangkok Treaty	28 March, 1997 In Thailand	10	To ban nuclear weapons, their tests and purchases on the territory of East Asia.	NWS didn’t sign the Protocol http://disarmament2.un.org/images/LACar.gif
Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear weapons in Latin America (and the Caribbean)/Treaty of Tlatelolco	14.02.67 In Mexico	33 countries	To ban nuclear weapons from Latin America	http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/5/52/200px-479px-Atomic_blast.jpg 14 kiloton atomic explosion, Nevada Test Site, USA
The Antarctic Treaty	23 June, 1961	44 countries	To ban nuclear explosions, burial and tests on the place of Antarctica	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Antarctica.jpg Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002) Click here to enlarge

The international spread of nuclear energy to countries in the world

“The knowledge is out of the tube… both for peaceful and unfortunately also for not peaceful purposes,” ElBaradei said.

Nuclear countries in the world

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/peace/nuclear_weapons/images/peace-nuclear.gif

The spread of nuclear weapons is something that mankind is worried about and try to stop it. Besides the nine states that have or are thought to have nuclear weapons there are more than 30 countries that could have technology to produce atomic weapons "in a very short time". Speaking at a conference on tightening controls against nuclear proliferation, Mohamed ElBaradei said more nations are "hedging their bets" by developing technology that is at the core of peaceful nuclear energy programs but could quickly be switched to making weapons. It seems that the world is in the race of nuclear weapons. Countries are looking for the deadliest weapons because “… it becomes clear their neighbors and regional rivals are already doing so”. CIA Director George Tenet recently told Congress. [5]

Nuclear energy exists in many countries and wide spread of it is an integral part of technical progress. During the nuclear age from 1970 the number of nuclear states has grown from 5 to 8. If there is no NPT, we will have a more rapid spread. Nowadays we can not stop the process of spreading of nuclear materials and technology. But what we must do is to stop running arms races.

Countries of Asia

http://www.transitionsabroad.com/images/maps/asia_map.jpg

In Asia the race of nuclear proliferation is going to start. India in order to protect herself will increase her arsenal. Pakistan concedes India and it will urge Pakistan to develop its nuclear abilities. So there will be an unstable situation in the world. Pakistan may use its weapons in case if:

India attacks Pakistan and conquers its territory;
India proceeds to the economic strangling of Pakistan;
India pushes Pakistan into political destabilization; [8]

Iran is like to have nuclear weapons soon. Saddam Hussein made the country to wish to develop military nuclear program. During the Iran-Iraq war (1980 – 1988) Iraq army used the chemical and rocket weapons against Iran. The army wasn’t ready for such operations and had huge losses. The neighbours of Iran also influence the opinion of this country to have nuclear weapons.

Some nations including, Argentina Australia, and South Africa, have recently declared that they would like to develop enrichment programs in order to sell fuel to

states that want to generate electricity with nuclear reactors.

Canada, Germany, Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, Taiwan, Spain, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Lithuania are among nations that either have the means to produce weapons-grade uranium if they chose, could quickly build such technology, or could use plutonium waste for weaponization. All are committed non-nuclear weapons states, and no one has suggested they want to use their programs for arms.

Japan also says it has no plans to develop atomic weapons, but it could make them at short notice by processing tons of plutonium left over from running its nuclear reactors. South Korea also has spent reactor fuel and was found a few years ago to have conducted small-scale secret experiments on making highly enriched uranium that would be usable in warheads.

North Korea developed its capacities from what it had portrayed as a peaceful nuclear energy program.

Some nations take the nuclear technology for peaceful civilian purposes and then use it to make military weapons. The material can be received during some stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, for example reprocessing. One can take spent fuel rods from conventional reactors and, extract the 1 percent of plutonium that is a byproduct of the fission process. One can collect enough plutonium for a lump the size of a baseball, and have the core of a Nagasaki-sized weapon.

Other countries considering developing

nuclear programs in the near future are Egypt, Bangladesh, Ghana, Indonesia, Jordan, Namibia, Moldova, Nigeria, Poland, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam and Yemen, Myanmar and Syria, U.N. officials say.

Indonesia didn’t intend to build the atomic power station. But in 1965 the National agency on an atomic energy (BATAN) was created. In 1987 a powerful (30 MgW) a multi-purpose reactor was build in research complex PPTN - Serpong. There are two research reactors in nuclear institutes in Bandung and Yogyakarta. Many of researches have double purpose, and can be changed into creation of the nuclear weapons. In 2005 the government discussed the plan of construction of four power units with general capacity of 4000 МВ to satisfy growing energy requirements in 2010-2016.

Myanma (Burma) in 2002 was officially declared to have the right to build nuclear industry for peaceful purposes. A reactor was being built near the town Maguej with the power of 10 GW in 2003.

Syria in 1979 was under suspicion of pursuing nuclear weapon program. In 1996 it had a research reactor SSR-1.

Brazil started its nuclear program when it was clear that Argentina had it. Brazil began the program with the help of Western Germany, France and the USA. Today Brazilian nuclear program is regarded to be the most advanced in Latin America, it can be competed only with Argentina.

Iran is known to be developing uranium-enrichment technology for peaceful nuclear energy. There are suspicions that Iran may be trying to obtain arms through its enrichment program. Some people argue that Iran has vast resources of oil and that there is no need for nuclear energy. So they believe that the main purpose for Iran is to acquire nuclear weapons.

In the following table the countries sable and trouble countries are presented.

Stable places

Trouble places

NPT Nuclear Weapon States (Russia, The USA, China, United Kingdom, France)

Non-NPT Nuclear Weapon States (Israel, Pakistan, India)

Countries that gave up weapons (Belarus, the Ukraine, Kazakhstan)

Suspected programs (Iran, North

Korea)

3. Programs taken before 1970 (Italy,

Egypt, Norway, West Germany, Japan,

Sweden)

3. Suspected but no weapons program

identified (Syria, Saudi Arabia,

Algeria)

Programs ended after 1970 (South

Korea, Brazil, Spain, South Africa,

Argentina, Australia, Canada,

Switzerland, Romania, Yugoslavia)

Recently terminated programs (Iraq,

Libya)

To sum up, new atomic generating power stations are either being built or are going to be built in the following countries: the USA, France, Finland; in the countries of Asia (China, India, Iran, Japan, South Korea); Central and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Slovakia); Latin America (Brazil, Argentina). Also New Zealand, Italy, Poland, Belarus, Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Kazakhstan, Chile, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Australia consider development of atomic engineering. The growth in current nuclear states such as China, Pakistan, India, South Korea is observed today. There is also a great interest among non-nuclear states (Jordan, Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia). But the countries of Asia and Latin America can be the most dangerous for regime of proliferation in the future.

Arguments in favour of proliferation

In spite of some deterrents of nuclear proliferation, the tendency to expansion of «nuclear club " exists. Moreover, some countries have even improved their nuclear arsenal. The spread of nuclear weapons is proliferating vertically. Horizontally, they have spread slowly across countries, and the pace is not likely to change much. NPT restrains the proliferation greatly. There are several possible reasons why countries want nuclear weapons.

The possession of nuclear arms makes the country stronger in the world policy. The increase of terrorist organizations makes the country do something to protect themselves.

The present policy of "five» nuclear states” influences the whole tendency. The five countries continue developing the nuclear arms and ignoring the article IV according to which they must choose the way of full nuclear disarmament. It’s obvious that a country without nuclear allies will want nuclear weapons all the more if some of its adversaries have them. So China and then India became nuclear powers, and Pakistan will probably follow

The opinion that nuclear weapons can reduce the chances of war as it was between the United States and the Soviet Union and between the Soviet Union and China promotes the proliferation. The fact that with the use of nuclear weapons the cost of war can be enormous prevents the countries from starting the war.

Incomprehension between the countries is one of the reasons. The USA tries to keep the status of the only powerful state with the only nuclear arsenal. Russia, Korea and China don’t agree with it and, as a result, take measures - Russia improves nuclear arsenal trying to excel the USA, China improves the quality and the quantity of nuclear weapons and Korea tries to keep nuclear arms. Mutual distrust and territorial disputes with the neighbours make India, Pakistan and Korea improve and increase nuclear arsenal. Also the tendency of Israel to possess the nuclear weapons can be explained by the unregulated relationship with the Arabian world.

Moreover, nuclear weapons can be used for deterrence. No one attacks a defense that is believed to be impregnable. Thus, the spread of nuclear weapons can help to maintain peace. States may also use force for coercion. One state may threaten to harm another state not to deter it from taking a certain action but to compel one. Napoleon III threatened to bombard Tripoli if the Turks did not comply with his demands for Roman Catholic control of the Palestinian Holy Places. This is blackmail, which can now be backed by conventional and by nuclear threats.

Some countries may find nuclear weapons a cheaper and safer alternative to running economically ruinous and militarily dangerous conventional arms races. Nuclear weapons may promise increased security and independence at an affordable price.

To enhance its international standing is the hope of some countries. One may enjoy the prestige that comes with nuclear weapons.

Inexact knowledge and figures of nuclear arsenal of the neighbours makes the countries to develop nuclear abilities. Many wars might have been avoided if their outcomes had been foreseen. 'To be sure,” George Simmel once said, ‘the most effective presupposition for preventing struggle, the exact knowledge of the comparative strength of the two parties, is very often only to be obtained by the actual fighting out of the conflict”'. Miscalculation causes wars. One side expects victory at an affordable price, while the other side hopes to avoid defeat.

It is obvious that peace has become the privilege of states having nuclear weapons, while wars are fought by those who lack them. Weak states cannot notice it. That is why states feeling threatened want their own nuclear weapons. So, countries have to care for their security with or without the help of nuclear weapons. If a country feels highly insecure and believes that nuclear weapons will make it more secure, it’s her right to do it. The guarantee of security is the main reason in the arms race. But on the other hand, countries damage the relationship with the neigbours badgering them about nuclear weapons and unwilling to guarantee its security.

John Wolfsthal, a former proliferation official at the Energy Department, cautions that “just knowing how to operate a nuclear reactor doesn't mean you can build a bomb. But with knowledge gained from building and operating a civilian power reactor, you get closer to the technologies you need for a weapon”, says Wolfsthal. [5]

Contribution of the countries to the proliferation of nuclear weapons and its influence on the stability

Nuclear weapons continue to spread slowly. The proliferation of nuclear weapons remains a frightening prospect. Many more countries can make nuclear weapons than do. «In the world «the black market» for sale of nuclear technologies is perfectly organized. With the help of money and desire it is possible to buy absolutely everything. Therefore at the moment 30-40 states can create the nuclear weapon though tomorrow», General director of IAEA ElBaradei told in his interview for the newspaper “Arguments and facts”.

Taking the following points into consideration nuclear weapons can be of great use. Otherwise they can influence the stability of the country.

ü Possession of nuclear weapons may slow arms races down, rather than speed them up.

ü For less developed countries to build nuclear arsenals requires a long lead time.

ü Nuclear power and nuclear weapons programmes require administrative and technical teams able to sustain programmes of considerable cost.

ü The more unstable a government, the shorter becomes the attention span of its leaders.

ü In countries where political control is most difficult to maintain, governments are least likely to initiate nuclear-weapons programmes.

Highly unstable states are unlikely to pursue nuclear projects. Through periods such projects may continue only in producing nuclear weapons. A nuclear state may be unstable or may become so. Such nuclear state will experience uncertainty of succession, fierce struggles for power, and instability of regime.

Russia has very large strategic and tactical nuclear forces. China is actively modernizing its nuclear arsenal. India and Pakistan dramatically demonstrate the ability of midlevel technology states to develop or acquire nuclear weapons. The future proliferation of nuclear weapons among such countries as North Korea, Iraq, and Iran is the most important question today. James Woolsey, being a Director of the CIA, said that he could “think of no example where the introduction of nuclear weapons into a region has enhanced that region’s security or benefited the security interests of the United States.”But then he tried to prove that nuclear weapons helped to maintain stability during the Cold War and to preserve peace throughout the instability that came in its wake.

When asked recently why nuclear weapons are so popular in Pakistan, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto answered: “It’s our history. A history of three wars with a larger neighbor. India is five times larger than we are. Their military strength is five times larger. In 1971, our country was disintegrated. So the security issue for Pakistan is an issue of survival.”From the other side, Shankar Bajpai, former Indian Ambassador to Pakistan, China, and the United States, has said that “Pakistan’s quest for a nuclear capability stems from its fear of its larger neighbor, removing that fear should open up immense possibilities”—possibilities for a less worried and more relaxed life.

The actions and interactions of new nuclear states differ from those of old nuclear powers. New nuclear states may come in hostile pairs and share a common border. Where States are bitter enemies one may fear that they will be unable to resist using their nuclear weapons against each other. The Soviet Union and the United States, and the Soviet Union and China, were hostile enough. Nuclear weapons caused China

and the Soviet Union to deal cautiously with each other. We are worried mostly about the future in which third-world countries have nuclear weapons.

People want to be sure that a nuclear-armed and newly hostile Egypt or a nuclear-armed and still hostile Syria would not strike to destroy Israel at the risk of Israeli bombs falling on some of their cities. More than a quarter of Egypt's people live in four cities: Cairo, Alexandria, Giza, and Aswan. More than a quarter of Syria's live in three: Damascus. Aleppo, and Homs.Government can’t risk sudden losses of such proportion or indeed. Rulers want to have a country that they can continue to rule. We cannot expect countries to risk more in the presence of nuclear weapons than they have in their absence.

History of Nuclear Weapon Stockpile Chart (1945-1995):

	1945	1955	1965	1975	1985	1995	2008
USA	6	3,057	31,265	26,675	22,941	14,766	5,400
Russia	0	200	6,129	19,443	39,197	27,000	14,000
Britain	0	10	310	350	300	300	200
France	0	0	32	188	360	485	348
China	0	0	5	185	425	425	200

Source: National Resources Defense Council

As information about nuclear arsenals is secret, there are only estimates about their nuclear weapons. Because of the importance of controlling nuclear weapons—of keeping them firmly in the hands of reliable officials—rulers of nuclear states may become more authoritarian and ever more given to secrecy. Moreover, some potential nuclear states are not politically strong and stable enough to ensure control of the weapons and of the decision to use them.

Groups or organizations that might use nuclear or radiological materials to make a terrorist device

The proliferation of nuclear weapons or radiological dispersal devices to terrorist groups is perhaps one of the most frightening threats in the world today. Today terrorism threatens the whole world. It is hard to find a place on the world political map that wasn’t regarded as a potential arena for terrorists.

Definition of the terrorism - “the unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence against people or property to coerce or intimidate governments or societies, often to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives”. [3]

Speaking of terrorism as a phenomenon, we often keep silent about reasons prompting people to take such extreme measures.

Terrorist motivation

Traditional thinking: “Terrorists want a lot of people watching, not a lot of people dead.” – Brian Jenkins, RAND

Terrorist goals

ü mass casualties

ü loss of critical resources

ü disruption of vital services

ü disruption of the economy

ü individual and mass panic

Terrorists could

ü attack a nuclear reactor

ü steal nuclear fuel or waste

ü disrupt critical inputs (eg., water supply) for the safe running of a nuclear reactor

ü acquire fissile material and fabricate a crude nuclear bomb.

ü aquire a ready-made nuclear weapon or take over a nuclear-armed submarine, plane or base.

Kinds of terrorist activities

ü theft and application of the nuclear device

ü theft or any other way of purchase of split materials with their further use for manufacture of the nuclear weapon

ü attacks on reactors or other nuclear objects with the purpose of radiological infection of surrounding areas

ü use of radiological materials for manufacturing a device with a radiological dispersion

Aspects of terrorism

ü intentional violence

ü political or ideological motivation

ü groups or individuals as members

ü non-combatant victims (this refers mainly to civilians)

ü some element of symbolism that produces fear in a larger audience

In order to manufacture a crude nuclear weapon, a terrorist organization must be experienced in areas such as high explosives, propellants, nuclear physics, chemistry, engineering and electronics. Moreover they must have essential knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU) Detailed design drawings of weapons components and of the final assembled device are also necessary for the terrorist group.

Terrorism involves chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons. Radiological devices are called “weapons of mass disruption”. They cause panic, but not large number of deaths and widespread physical destruction. A radiological weapon involves the dispersal of highly radioactive materials over a target area to make the area uninhabitable or to produce casualties. A radiological dispersal attack is less violent, but can significantly contaminate an urban center, causing economic and social disruption.There have been some notable radiological accidents and attempts to attack nuclear power plants. But there has not been a successful malicious attack resulting in extensive destruction. Thus, the physical, financial, environmental, psychological, and political effects of a radiological terrorist attack cannot be fully grasped.

Types of radiological terrorism:

ü radiological devices

ü attacks on nuclear facilities or on materials during transportation.

ü radiological dispersal devices

There are several large terrorist groups in the world. The most dangerous are considered to be Al-Qaeda, Hezbollah and Hamas. The main differences between terrorist groups and organizations are:

- demographic and logistical considerations

- the territory where they operate

- the sources of funds

- actual operations

- application of funds

Al-Qaeda is not one organization, but a loose confederation of terrorist organizations. Their members live and operate in over 40 countries. It was founded in 1988 by Azzam (later Osama bin Ladan). The head of Germany's intelligence service estimated that recently al-Qaeda consists of 70,000 people world-wide. Tens of thousands of these people are trained at al-Qaeda camps in the Sudan, Yemen, and Afghanistan. The common elements among these groups include their Muslim faith, an intense disdain for anything Western, and their support for Osama bin-Laden. Bin-Laden continues to fund many of these groups. Al-Qaeda's ultimate goal may be to rid the Middle East of all American influence. Terrorist incidents in Indonesia, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Pakistan, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and Yemen can all be linked to al-Qaeda.

The al-Qaeda’s threat was well known before September 11, 2001, but only after that fateful day countries around the world mobilized law enforcement, emergency responders, military units, intelligence agencies, and diplomats to fight the war against terrorism. Al-Qaida maintain connection with other known terrorist groups in the world. Tactics include assassination, bombing, hijacking, kidnapping, and suicide attacks.Their targets can be prominent symbols (public buildings, embassy and military personnel, etc.) of the United States, its allies, and moderate Muslim governments.

David Albright and Corey Hinderstein of the Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) said that a terrorist group could produce a nuclear explosive device with a design similar to the ones dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Terrorists don’t have possibilities to test such a device before its initial use. The simplest way to teach the terrorists the technology is to sendscientists abroad overseas for training. Scientists that have programs, such as Pakistan, have already been linked to al-Qaeda. Pakistan is considered to be the greatest threat in the world today. Other possible sources of scientists

with this knowledge are Great Britain, Russia, France, or even the United States.

Taliban is the terrorist organization that was founded in 1994 by Mullah Mohammed Omar and Mullah Obaidullah Akhund (captured now). The word Taliban means “religious students”. The Taliban has strict and “anti-modern” ideology. Its allies are al-Qaeda, Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin, Islamic Emirate of Waziristan. Its opponents are Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Canada, United Kingdom, Netherlands and Australia. The majority of Taliban movement were ethnic Pashtuns from southern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The Taliban received education, supplies and arms from the Pakistani government. Tjeir first military activity was in October 1994 captured Kandahar City in southern Afganistan and lost only some men. In a few weeks they captured "a convoy trying to open a trade route from Pakistan to Central Asia" from another group of warlords attempting to extort money. [6] In three months they took captured 12 Afganistan’s provinces. In September 1996 the group captured Kabul, Afganistan’s capital.

Palestinian terrorist groups include Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). Their activities have emanated from the Palestinian territories and have focused their attention on Israel. Hamas is the most recognizable Palestinian terrorist group, especially since gaining political leadership in Palestine. The U.S. recognizes Hamas as a terrorist organization. As is the situation with Hezbollah, many countries do not, which makes fundraising in those territories viable.

Nuclear accidents

Nuclear energy is the most expensive electricity source, if we take into account the cost of building, running and decommissioning of the power stations. But we can’t evaluate the costs of the damage done to the gene pool and life affected by radiation. Moreover, there are many other costs such as insurance and the cost of potential accidents, the long-term disposal of waste that must be taken into consideration. Nuclear power can’t solve the problems of climate change and it can’t be proved that all the nuclear accidents are worth in order to save the environment.

The nuclear power plant is a particularly nefarious use of nuclear energy. Unlike conventional power plants, nuclear plants have a short life-span (30 years). Then reactor components become irreparably radioactive. Unfortunately, there is no strict solution today where to store spent power wastes. The western European utilities and nuclear industry would never dare to think of dumping radioactive waste in the outskirts of Paris or the suburbs of Helsinki. But this fact will be considered in the 21 century. In the following picture nuclear accidents that happen in the world are shown.

More than fifty years on from the birth of the nuclear power industry, the true price of nuclear is being paid. The problems such as Chernobyl, Three Mile Islands, Mayak are not the things from the past. The consequences of them we have today and these places are called a "sacrifice zone." These accidents we mustn’t forget but to remember in order to escape the same mistakes in future.

Since the days of the 1950s when nuclear-powered electricity was started as the answer to the world's energy problems, nuclear power has remained only a minimal energy source. It supplies only two percent of the global primary energy demand. Since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, there have been about 22 major accidents at nuclear power stations. 15 cases of them entailed radiological release. In the work we’ll study the major accidents. accidents and present. the calendar of nuclear accidents and events.

Types of nuclear accidents

Loss of coolant accident

Loss of coolant accident is a mode of failure for a nuclear reactor. If not managed effectively, the results of it could be catastrophic to the reactor, the facility that houses it, and the immediate vicinity around the reactor facility. Nuclear reactors generate heat inside it in order to remove it into useful electrical power, a coolant system is necessary. When this coolant system flow is reduced or lost, the fission chain reaction is stopped immediately by the nuclear reactor’s emergency shutdown system. But, because of radioactivity decay the nuclear fuel will continue to generate heat. Nuclear scientists know that the greatest risk in operating a reactor is the loss-of-coolant accident. If for some reason the flow of water is stopped or slowed -- for example if a pipe breaks -- the fissioning fuel rods could become so hot that they could melt.

Criticality accidents

A criticality accident when a nuclear chain reaction is accidentally allowed to occur in fissile material, such as enriched uranium or plutonium. The Chernobyl accident is an example of a criticality accident. Accident in Sarov was also an example. A technician working with highly enriched uranium was irradiated while preparing an experiment involving a sphere of fissile material. The Sarov accident is interesting because the system remained critical for many days before it could be stopped, though safely located in a shielded experimental hall. This is an example of a limited scope accident where only a few people can be harmed, while no release of radioactivity into the environment occurred. A criticality accident with release of radiation (gamma and neutron) and a very small release of radioactivity occurred at Tokaimura in 1999.

Decay heat

Decay heat accidents occur when the heat generated by the radioactive decay causes harm. In a large nuclear reactor, a loss of coolant accident can damage the core: for example, at Three Mile Island.

Transport

Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. In Cochabamba a defective gamma radiography set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers.

In the United Kingdom, it was revealed in a recent court case that a radiotherapy source was transported from Leeds to Sellafield with defective shielding. The shielding had a gap on the underside. They claim that no human has been seriously harmed by the escaping radiation.

Equipment failure

Equipment failure is one possible type of accident. It happened at Białystok in Poland. The electronics used for the treatment of cancer suffered a malfunction. This led to the overexposure of one patient.

A related cause of accidents is failure of control software, as in the cases involving the Therac-25 medical radiotherapy equipment: exposed an undetected bug in the control software was in a new design model. It could lead to patients receiving massive overdoses.

Human error

Human error is the main cause in many accidents. Besides the major accidents occurred in Chernobyl there are many cases when a man can not cope with the situation and can not foresee consequences of his activity. So a person can miscalculate the activity of a teletherapy source. This leeds to the wrong dose of gamma rays to the patients. In the case of radiotherapy accidents, an underexposure is as much an accident as an overexposure as the patients may not get the full benefit of the prescribed treatment. Also, humans have made errors while attempting to service plants and equipment. It results in overdoses of radiation, such as the Nevvizh and Soreq irradiator accidents. In Japan two minor millennium bugs came to light.

In 1946 Canadian Manhattan Project physicist Louis Slotin performed a risky experiment known as "tickling the dragon's tail" which involved two hemispheres of neutron-reflective Beryllium being brought together around a plutonium core to bring it to criticality. Against operating procedures, the hemispheres were separated only by a screwdriver. The screwdriver slipped and set off a chain reaction criticality. The room was filled with harmful radiation and a flash of blue light. Slotin separated the hemispheres in reaction to the heat flash and blue light, preventing further radiation of several co-workers present in the room. However Slotin absorbed a lethal dose of the radiation and died during the following week.

Lost source

Lost source accidents are ones in which a radioactive source is lost, stolen or abandoned. The source then might cause harm to humans or the environment, for example, the event in Lilo where sources were left by the Soviet army. Another case occurred at Yanango where a radiography source was lost, also at Samut Prakarn a cobalt-60 teletherapy source was lost and at Gilan in Iran a radiography source harmed a welder. The best known example of this type of event is the Goiânia accident which occurred in Brazil.

The International Atomic Energy Agency has provided guides for scrap metal collectors on what a sealed source might look like. The scrap metal industry is the one where lost sources are most likely to be found.

№ 1 Map of the Russian Federation showing the sites of the process criticality accidents, the capital, Moscow, and Obnisk, the location of the regulating authority, IPPE.

№ 2 Map of the United States showing the sites of the process criticality accidents, and the capital, Washington.

№ 3 Map of the United Kingdom showing the № 4 Map of Japan showing the sites of the sites of the process criticality accident, and the sites of the process criticality accident, and capital, London the capital, Tokyo

Conclusion:

Criticality accident risks will not disappear because significant quantities of fissile material exist. All accidents have been dominated by design, managerial, and operational failures. People have gained sufficient knowledge from experiments and from accidents in order to provide a high degree of confidence. It can be achieved with appropriate support from senior management, reasonable diligence on the part of criticality staff and operating personnel. Thus accident can be maintained at the current low level or they can be reduced. This will require continued education of future personnel at all level – regulatory, upper management, supervisory, criticality staff, and operations in order not to repeat similar accidents.

Description of major accidents

Chernobyl

The Chernobyl accident happened in the Ukraine in 1986. The resulting steam explosion and fire released five percent of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere. The accident destroyed the Chernobyl-4 reactor. Chernobyl was a human-caused power excursion that caused steam explosion. It resulted in a graphite fire which lofted radioactive smoke into atmosphere.

28 people died within four months from radiation or thermal burns, 19 have subsequently died, and there have been around nine deaths from thyroid cancer apparently due to the accident: total 56 fatalities as of 2004. According to the IAEA, 4000 deaths were related to the disaster, but new statistics prove that up to 90000 deaths and causalities can be

related to radiation fallout from Chernobyl.

http://en.wikipedia.orgz

Common explanations:

– Human error

– Mismanagement

– Design flaw

Some 5000 tonnes of boron, dolomite, sand, clay and lead were dropped on to the burning core by helicopter in an effort to extinguish the blaze and limit the release of radioactive particles.

Large areas of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia were contaminated in varying degrees. The insidious traces of what happened in Chernobyl can still be found today in Northern Ireland, Sweden and even Saudi Arabia.

The Three Mile Island power station is near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in USA. It had two pressurized water reactors. One PWR was of 800 MWe and entered service in 1974. It remains one of the best-performing units in USA. Unit 2 was of 900 MWe and almost brand new. The accident to unit 2 happened at 4 am on 28 March 1979 when the reactor was operating at 97% power. It involved a relatively minor malfunction in the secondary cooling circuit which caused the temperature in the primary coolant to rise. This in turn caused the reactor to shut down automatically. At this point a relief valve failed to close, but instrumentation did not reveal the fact, and so much of the primary coolant drained away that the residual decay heat in the reactor core was not removed. The core suffered severe damage as a result. Fortunately, it led to no deaths or injuries to workers or members of the public.

Common explanations:

The operators were unable to diagnose or respond properly to the unplanned automatic shutdown of the reactor. Deficient control room instrumentation and inadequate emergency response training proved to be root causes of the accident.

The accident in the Mayak plant occurred on 29 September 1957 in Ozersk, Chelyabinskaya oblast. The failure of the cooling system for a tank storing tens of thousands of tons of dissolved nuclear waste resulted in a non-nuclear explosion. As a result about 20 MCi (740 petabecquerels) of radioactivity was released. 200 people died of radiation sickness, 10,000 people were evacuated from their homes, and 470,000 people were exposed to radiation. This nuclear accident is categorised as a level 6 "serious accident" on the 7 point International Nuclear Events Scale.

Common explanations:

In the early years of its operation Mayak released vast quantities of radioactively contaminated water into several small lakes near the plant, and into the Techa river, whose waters ultimately flow into the Ob River. The downstream consequences of this radiation pollution have yet to be determined.

The authorities tried to hide some facts. So in 2006 residents of Ozersk claim that their life is not exposed to danger. But no one denies that many people who worked at the plant in 1950s and 60s subsequently died of the effects of radiation. The administration of the Mayak plant was criticized for environmentally unsound practices. Working conditions at Mayak resulted in severe health risk and many accidents. In the zone of radiation there were the territories of three regions: Chelyabinckaya oblast, Sverdlovskaya oblast and Tyumenskaya oblast with the population of 272 000 people who lived in 217 places.

Windscale

The accident in the British nuclear reactor at Windscale, Cumbria took place on October 10, 1957. The reactor was caught in fire and released substantial amounts of radioactive contamination.

When the reactor was being built, people knew little about the behavior of graphite when exposed to neutrons, when bombarded by neutrons. They didn’t know a build up of potential energy can be caused. This energy, if allowed to accumulate, could escape spontaneously in a powerful rush of heat Graphite is flammable in air and air was fed into the reactors for cooling, so there was a constant fire hazard. The Windscale fire was a serious nuclear accident leading to a significant release of radionuclide into the atmosphere. The reason was not explained. There was no need to evacuate people.

Nuclear energy in Zheleznogorsk. Risks and benefits.

Zheleznogorsk is located on the Yenisei River approximately 60 kilometers northeast of

Krasnoyarsk. The following main enterprises are located in the city:

the Mining and Chemical Combine (MCC), which is under the auspices of Minatom. Its core activities involve reactor production, spent fuel storage, mechanics, and environmental radiation monitoring.
the Research and Production Association of Applied Mechanics (NPO PM) of the Russian Aerospace Agency. Its core activities include the design, production, and control of satellites for communications and navigation; the design and production of antenna systems; mechanics; and instrument making.
two construction companies, Sibkhimstroi and Atomstroi. Their core activities involve construction and installation work for industrial and civil sites, including MCC facilities.
the Chemical Plant, a subsidiary of the State Enterprise Krasnoyarsk Machine-Building Plant. Its activities

involve finishing work on jet engines and technologies

for reprocessing jet engine fuel.

the Sibalko distillery.

It should be noted that even today, these city-forming enterprises continue to play a defining role in the socioeconomic life of the city. Following are several pieces of evidence in this regard. The current population of the city is 103,000, with 52 percent of the working residents being employed by the main enterprises as of the first half of 2001. It is clear that economic and social stability and the further development of the city are directly connected with the situation at the city-forming enterprises. Living in a nuclear city (such as Zheleznogorsk) has some advantages and disadvantages presented in the following table.

Advantages

Disadvantages

v It is an important source of electric energy.

v Nuclear energy is the most effective today.

v Uranium is a relatively inexpensive fuel that is abundant throughout the world

v Nuclear power produces no air pollutants

v It is estimated that global exploitable reserves of uranium will likely be depleted within 30-40 years.

v People living near power plant have privileges when they pay for electro energy

v The nuclear power plants is places of employment for many people and losing them would be a catastrophe for the local economy

v Like other closed cities of the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy (Minatom), Zheleznogorsk has accumulated much scientific and technical potential.

v At present, polysilicon production plant with an estimated capacity of 500 tones per year is being built. Silicon single crystal is an essential component in micro-electronics, power electrical engineering, and photovoltaic cells. This production has already been sold five years beforehand.

v Closing the reactors would help on three fronts:

- It would reduce Russia's output of plutonium;

- it would remove the danger of a serious accident;

- it would reduce the amount of Russian nuclear waste that requires storage.

v A typical 1,000-megawatt pressurized-water reactor (with a cooling tower) takes in 20,000 gallons of river, lake or ocean water per minute for cooling, circulates it through a 50-mile maze of pipes, returns 5,000 gallons per minute to the same body of water, and releases the remainder to the atmosphere as vapour.

v Nuclear plants affect the environment
All methods for producing electricity affect the environment to some degree. Nuclear power has a minimal environmental impact. Since nuclear plants do not burn fuel, they emit none of the combustion byproducts produced by fossil-fueled plants. Nuclear plants emit very small amounts of radiation, just as fossil-fueled plants do, but the levels pose no danger to the environment.

The following aspects must be taken into consideration:

ü It was proved that if all the world’s existing fossil fuel based power stations were replaced by nuclear, there would only be enough uranium for 3-4 years. Is it worth starting nuclear development program? It is a mutual question.

ü In Krasnoyarsk region there good conditions for developing hydro energy. But it influences the ecology to some extent The River Yenisey doesn’t freeze in winter.

ü Nuclear energy is our future. Even the Arabian Emirates possessing large amounts of gas and oil have signed the documents to develop nuclear energy because they understand that it is necessary to develop nuclear energy.

ü Hydrogen energy is considered to be the best energy in the world, but its further development depends on the use of nuclear reactor with high temperature.

ü The problem of nuclear wastes is not solved yet
When nuclear fuel is first placed in a commercial reactor, it consists of uranium oxide. After the fuel has been used for three or four years, it consists of about 96 percent uranium oxide and about 3 percent new elements - including iodine, strontium, xenon, silver, cesium, carbon, and palladium. These are nuclear wastes. Spent nuclear is more radioactive than new fuel. A person can handle new fuel pellets of uranium oxide without danger. In contrast, spent fuel is dangerously radioactive, although much of the radioactivity dissipates quickly - some 98 percent within six months. Forty to 50 years after spent fuel is removed from the reactor, its radioactivity has decreased by a factor of 100. A very small percentage of nuclear wastes remain radioactive for thousands of years. Do we have the rights to leave it for our children?

In addition to high-level waste, another category of nuclear

waste associated with nuclear power is called "low-level

waste." Low-level waste is generally anything that becomes

contaminated with radioactive materials during its use.

Such items include rags, papers,

cleaning materials, protective clothing, tools, and

contaminated liquids. There are many program that deals

with the safety.

Automatic Control System in Zheleznogorsk:

Automatic Control System (ACS) of the Mining and Chemical Combine includes such systems as MCC Internet hub, computer paperwork, process control system, design automatic system, control system monitoring separate processes and control systems for the Combine departments.

Nuclear Materials Control and Accounting:

The MCC system for nuclear materials (NM) control and accounting is a part of the Federal System for NM accounting and control. MCC NM control and accounting system was established at the time when basic production facilities were put into operation. At present the system is being improved. NM control and accounting system is to solve the following tasks:

ü continuous accounting of all nuclear materials that is carried out at all stages of NM production and storing.

ü obtaining and providing data on NM inventory.

Mining and Chemical Combine is a participant in several Russian-American, and International Scientific Technology Centre (ISTC) Programs, which are aimed on improving NM control and accounting. There are three nuclear- and radiation-hazardous facilities at Mining and Chemical Combine now:

reactor plant;
radiochemical plant;
spent nuclear fuel storage facility at RT – 2 plant.

It has always been of paramount importance for MCC to guard the nuclear&radiation hazardous facilities, to protect nuclear materials, and to keep official secrets. Since 1955 MCC main facilities have been guarded by the Russian Federation MVD Forces. A particular importance is attached to the protection of nuclear materials during the materials transportation to the Combine and from it. The guard forces use modern computerized technologies, TV-monitoring, up-to-date alarm and communication systems. The response forces react immediately and come to the place if it is necessary.

In order to increase the nuclear facilities protection, to improve the nuclear materials physical protection, control and accounting system, The Mining and Chemical Combine is closely collaborating with FSUE “Eleron” and National Laboratories of the US Department of Energy.

Moreover, in Russia a new program Generation 4 is being developed. This program is a system of creation of nuclear safe reactor. In case of emergency the program helps the reactor come to the stage of safety. Much money is invested in order to increase the safety of nuclear energy programs. According to many indexes of nuclear safety Russia leaves behind many countries.

Sources

Objective I:

Nuclear Energy Today, Nuclear Energy Agency Organization for economic Co-operation and development, OECD 2003 2005 <www.nea.fr>
V. A Orlov Nuclear non-proliferation. Volume 1, PIRcenter of political investigations, Moscow, 2002
V. A Orlov Nuclear non-proliferation. Volume 2, PIRcenter of political investigations, Moscow, 2002
http://images.google.ru/imgres?imgurl=http://bp3.blogger.com/_K4Y8wT6-Y_4/RiXnsYaHrfI/AAAAAAAAAIU/xBTN-AURXmo/s200/Russia%2BNuke.jpg&imgrefurl=http://verificationthoughts.blogspot.com/2007/04/enter-atomenergoprom.html&h=160&w=200&sz=8&hl=ru&start=12&tbnid=ypIABYFrpYnvdM:&tbnh=83&tbnw=104&prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2BAtomenergoprom%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Dru
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http://www.nti.org/db/nisprofs/russia/weapons/security/secovr.htm
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http://www.rosenergoatom.ru
http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/rus/int-work/
http://www.rusenerg.
http:/www. pircenter.org
http:/www.armscontrol.org
http://www..wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty

Objective II:

A Arbatov Nuclear control and non-proliferation, 2005
"Nuclear Terrorism" - Fred Wehling (CNS Education Coordinator)
http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/doe/younger.htm
http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/0305/ijpr/cameron.tm
www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm
http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/0305/ijpr/cameron.htm
http://www.cleveland.com/news/plainder
http://noiri.blogspot.com/2007/07/main-types-of-terrorists.html
http://units.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/2007/october/foster-payne.cfm
http://www.pugwash.org/september11/pakistan-nuclear.htm
http://www.tgarden.demon.co.uk/writings/articles/2002/nuclear%20CofS%20.htm
http://www.pircenter.org
http://www.armscontrol.org/documents/npt.asp

Objective III:

“A Review of Criticality Accidents” by Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2000 http://www.orau.org/ptp/Library/accidents/la-13638.pdf
Chernobyl – everything you ever wanted to know http://pripyat.com
http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/nukes/chernob/rep02.html
http://spb.org.ru/bellona/ehome/russia/nfl/nfl8.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism
http://en.wikipedia.org
E. I. Ignatenko Chernobyl: events and lessons. – M.: Idea, 1989
G. Shasharin Chernobyl tragedy // New world, 1991, №9
http://www.doegov.bridge
P. V. Morozov Federal State-Owned Unitary Enterprise “Mining and Chemical Combine” Zheleznogorsk, 2006 Komsomolskaya pravda, 30 September 1992, p. 2.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) http://www.iaea.org/
Institute of Nuclear Power Operators (INPO)
http://www.hss.energy.gov/CSA/CSP/inpo
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/sfeature/tmiwhat
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
http://stellar-one.com/nuclear
http://www.cdi.org/issues/nukeaccidents/accidents.htm
http://www.nirs.org
http://www.cdi.org/adm/1341/
http://www.whistleblower.org/template/page.cfm?page_id=10
http://www.eia.doe.gov
http://www.bbc.co.uk
http://www.time.com