Critical
Issues Forum
Benchmark I
Nuclear Renaissance: Benefits vs. Risks
Orinda Academy
Contributors
Editor: Kevin
Almestad
Citations/Bibliography: Omran Al-Mesned
Writers: Alex
Dopkin
Chris
Sarmiento
Xochi
Edgerton-Benitez
Kai
Jen
Zack
Scheffler
Table of Contents
Title page: P.
1
Contributions page: P.
2
Objective 1: P. 4 - 16
Solar, Wind and Geothermal Info P. 4 - 5
Renewable Energy Timeline P. 6 - 8
Coal Timeline P. 9 – 10
Coal Info P. 11
Oil Timeline P. 12 - 13
Oil Summary P. 13
Natural Gas Timeline P. 14-15
Natural Gas Info P. 15-16
Nuclear Energy Timeline P. 17
Energy Dependence Graphs P. 18
Hydroelectricity Info P. 19
Hydroelectricity Timeline P. 20-21
Objective 2:
The Nuclear Cycle P. 21-23
Dependency on Nuclear Energy P. 24
Nuclear PowerÕs Effect on People P. 25
Nuclear Glossary P. 26-27
Citations / Bibliographies: P.
28-31
Objective 1: Your task is to clearly demonstrate an understanding of energy sources in use in the world today and their availability, distinguishing between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
Solar Energy, Wind Turbines and
Geothermal Power
Wind power can be traced back thousands and thousands of years, to the boats being blown across the Nile River in 5000 B.C. In 200 B.C. there were other types of wind power such as water pumping windmills in China and windmills with woven reed sails grinding grain in the Middle East.
In the 11th Century Middle Eastern people were using windmills for food productions, this idea would be brought all the way to Europe through merchants and crusaders.3 Windmills would be used by the Dutch in order to drain the lakes and marshy wetlands by the Rhine River Delta. Settlers would soon takes this technology to America, in the late 19th Century, where it was used to pump water to farms and ranches for their crops as well as power homes and industry by generating electricity.
The use of windmills started to decline with industrialization in Europe and America. In Europe, the steam engine replaced the windmills for pumping water and was also replaced by more inexpensive power in rural areas of the United States. But also because of industrialization, larger windmills were created for the purpose of generating electricity, these were called wind turbines. Using wind to generate electricity has always been dependant of the price of fossil fuels and is more popular when prices increase in fossil fuels. Prices fell after the fall of the fuel prices in World War II, but greatly increased when the price of oil grew in the 1970Õs
After the 1970Õs and the oil embargoes, wind energy was being converted into useful power and there were wind farms created, which is a group of turbines creating electricity for a country. Wind energy currently has been harnessed in wind power plants and is the quickest-growing energy source. The history of wind power can date all the way back from 5000 B.C. to the current date and will soon be one of the huge energy sources generating power in years to come.
Geothermal power links back over 10,000
years with roots in the American Paleo-Indians. They settled near a hot spring
in which they used that natural heat for bathing and heating. They also
believed that the natural heat and spring was a healing source.2
During the 1700Õs near Pisa, Italy the first geothermal energy was used for industry in the way that the heat of steam was used to extract boric acid in the Larderello Fields. At Larderello Fields, in 1904 the first geothermal power plant came about, using steam to generate power. In 1992, the first geothermal power plant came about in the United States which could power up to 250 kilowatts, which was a fairly small power output.
In the 1960Õs the United States created the largest industrial geothermal power plant, which produced 11 megawatts of energy. The good thing about this was that all this energy was renewable and friendly to the environment. 2
Past the 1960Õs, many organizations and governing bodies were put in place to research and develop more geothermal power plants, and expand geothermal technologies; and today there 60 or more geothermal power plants powering parts of our country. There is still room today to make a more efficient geothermal power plant with a greater power capacity. Geothermal energy also has its roots in days nearly 10,000 years ago and still endures today as a new energy source that is being researched and improved to create environmentally friendly energy. 2
Solar power can be traced back to the Ancient Greeks and the Romans, who saw the benefit of making their architecture involve the sun and its ability to light and heat buildings. This is called a passive solar design. The Romans would put giant windows on the south facing side of buildings to retain the heat the sun would shine in during the daytime.
The way solar energy was used changed in 1861 when Auguste Mouchout created a steam engine that was powered solely by the heat of the sun. The invention was expensive, so it never became a widely used energy source.
In Europe, scientists throughout the 1800 have developed large cone-shaped collectors to boil ammonia and do things such as locomotion and refrigeration.1 In the United States, a scientist was able to capture some of the power of the sun, his name was John Ericsson and he invented a Òparabolic trough collectorÓ1 which would lead the way for future technology based on the same invention.
In 1921, Albert Einstein was given the Nobel Prize in physics for the work he did on the photoelectric effect, necessary for the generation of electricity with solar cells. The first solar cell able to generate an electric current was created in Bell Laboratories, but it wasnÕt used because it cost up to $300 per watt, where today it is around $5 dollars. When the Arab Oil Embargo came about in 1973 the United States invested heavily in solar power and the solar electric cell that Bell Lab produced.
In the 1990Õs solar energy costs had fallen, but so had the fossil fuels price, making solar take a backseat to fossil fuels once again. At the same time there was a huge growth of solar power in Japan, where they put in 25,000 solar rooftops. These orders are creating a larger economy for solar power, thus having it grow at 30 percent a year. The technology for solar energy also dates back to ancient times and is still working currently, and is a quickly expanding industry.
____________________________________
1 http://www.southface.org/solar/solar-roadmap/solar_how-to/history-of-solar.htm
2 http://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/articles/history_of_geothermal_energy.html
3 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind_history.html
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Solar and Wind Power Timeline |
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400 B.C. |
In Ancient Greek they used the position of the
sun in the sky to heat their homes in |
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winter and cool the houses during the summertime. This was
a very early form of solar |
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heating because it would be used to heat the
ground and walls to keep a comfortable |
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temperature. |
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200-300 |
A mathematician was able to show that a
reflective parabola surface can create a |
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B.C. |
concentrated beam of light. Greeks, Romans and
Chinese find this an easy way to light |
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fires. |
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950 A.D. |
Persian windmills were being used to ground corn
into a meal. Vertical wind axis |
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machines had shelters around its blades to force
wind in to power the windmill and grind |
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corn. |
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1200's |
Ghenghis Kahn had his armies bring Persians into
China in order to build windmills to |
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help with China's irrigation and make it more
efficient. |
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1300 |
In Europe, a mock mill was created where the
machine could change directions to |
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match the wind direction. |
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1500 |
Spain created tower windmills with triangle cloth
sails to catch the wind. |
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1500's |
Leonardo da Vinci talks about creating an
industrial application for solar light |
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concentrators. |
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1600 |
Drainage windmills start to be used and turn
wetlands into farmland. |
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1626 |
The Dutch buy Manhattan Island (at the time
called New Amsterdam) and bring wind - |
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mills to America. |
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1700 |
England and the Netherlands each have at least
10,000 windmills each. |
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1745 |
A fantail design was created in England where the
blades of a windmill move into the |
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wind. |
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1759 |
England creates a design where the blades of a
windmill are angled 20 degrees to |
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catch more wind and generate more power. |
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1776 |
Horace de Saussure created the first solar
collector in the world, in Switzerland. |
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1839 |
Edmund Becquerel, a French scientist, was the
first person to discover the photovoltaic |
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effect. He conducted an experiment with two
identical electrodes in a conducting |
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solution and created electricity out of light. |
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1850's |
Daniel Halladay and John Burnham design and sell
the Halladay Windmill which was |
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created for Western America. The U.S. Wind Engine
Company was created by them as |
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well. |
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1865 |
When people moved west after the Civil War, the
Railroad company bought two |
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windmills to pump water for the trains' steam
engines. |
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1880's |
John Ericsson an inventor in America creates the
solar energy industry by building |
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solar-driven engines to power the steam
generators in the U.S. ships. |
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Western settlers purchase windmills that they
build on their own to do things such as |
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pump water, shell corn, saw wood and mill grain. |
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Thomas O. Perry created over 5,000 experiments in
order to create a better windmill and |
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he started the Aermotor company. |
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1889 |
There are 77 windmill companies in the U.S. |
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1891 |
Clarence Kemp creates the first solar water
heater in the U.S. |
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1892 |
A windmill was used to generate electricity in
Denmark by Poul LaCour. |
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Early |
Windmills are used to pump saltwater in order to
evaporate ponds so California gold |
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1900's |
miners were able to get salt. |
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1908 |
a village in Denmark is powered by 72 windmills. |
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1908 |
William J. Bailey invents a solar collector that
became the predecessor of our modern |
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solar collectors. |
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1920 |
Several companies service and power about 50,000
homes, but by 1950 the industry |
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to
50's |
expired, not being able to compare to fossil
fuels cheap cost. |
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1940's |
Creating houses with solar panels and energy
become more popular. Home builders |
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now consider the idea of designing houses with
active and passive solar housing. |
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1941 |
America has over 60,000 solar water heaters. |
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1941 |
The biggest wind turbine in history was created
and calle dthe Smith Putname wind |
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turbine. |
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1950s |
Photovoltaic cells are being used to power space
satellites of the U.S. |
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1954 |
Bell Telephone company created a silicon wafer to
capture sunlight, creating the "solar |
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cell". |
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1970's |
Because of the first oil embargo, companies
interest in photovoltaics and wind power in |
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the United States is spurred. |
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1979 |
The second oil embargo even further strengthens
the wind and solar industry |
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1980's |
Wind farms are developed to create large amounts
of energy in the United States |
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1980 |
The first solar cell power plant was created and
dedicated at Natural Bridges National |
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Monument, Utah. |
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1990's |
Minnesota
led the United States in wind power capacity put in place through the
1990's. |
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2005 |
Photovoltaic cells are the major power source for
all of the U.S. space projects. |
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Today |
We are still trying to implement renewable
resource to take the place of fossil fuels but |
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are dependent on them for our electricity and are
trying to change that. |
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1. http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/wcee/keep/nr735/Unit_1/Timeline.htm |
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Coal Timeline
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time |
info |
source |
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400Õs |
Aristotle mentioned coal in his book, Meteorology |
1 |
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1300Õs |
Coal used commonly in Europe |
1 |
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1748 |
First recorded U.S. coal production. |
2, 3 |
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1758 |
First commercial U.S. coal shipment. |
3 |
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1762 |
Coal was used to manufacture shot, shell, and other military materials. |
3 |
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1769 |
James Watt patented the modern day steam engine. Coal was used to produce steam for early steam engines. |
3 |
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1800 |
Coal became the principal fuel used by steam powered trains (locomotives). As the railroads branched into the coal fields, they became a vital link between mines and markets. |
3 |
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1800 |
Coal was used to produce oil and gas to be used for lighting. |
3 |
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1800 |
More and more households and steamboats used coal for fuel. |
3 |
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1816 |
Baltimore Maryland, first city to light streets with gas made from coal |
1 |
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1820 |
First commercial mine, known as the "McLean drift
bank" opened in Kentucky, near the Green River and Paradise in
Muhlenberg County. |
2 |
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1839 |
Steam Shovel Invented |
1 Picture from: 4 |
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1882 |
The first practical coal-fired electric generating station, developed by Thomas Edison, went into operation in New York City to supply electricity for household lights. |
3 |
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1896 |
General Electric Company build first power plant |
1 |
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1913 |
First mine car of coal, loaded |
6 |
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1918 |
First pulverized coal firing in electric power plants. |
2 |
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1956 |
Railroads converting from coal to diesel fuel. |
2 |
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1961 |
Coal had become the major fuel used by electric utilities in the United States to generate electricity. |
3 |
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1980 |
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) Study began. Industries spent over $1 billion on Air Pollution Control Equipment. |
3 |
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1986 |
Clean Coal Technology Act passed. |
3 |
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1990 |
US Coal production 1 billion tons/year |
3, 2 |
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1997 |
The UN passed the Kyoto treaty. The protocol requires a 5.2% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from 39 nations from 1990. this 5.2% must happen between 2008 to 2012. This requires the United States to emit only 93% of what was emitted in 1990. |
5 |
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2002 |
Coal mining companies reclaimed the 2 millionth acre of mined land. Surface mines that are no longer in use must be "reclaimed" or restored to their natural state. |
3 |
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2003 |
The United States sponsored a $1 billion, 10-year demonstration project to create the world's first coal-based, zero-emissions electricity and hydrogen power plant. |
3 |
1.
http://facweb.stvincent.edu/eec/PDF/Modules/CoalFormationandTimeline.pdf
2.
http://www.coaleducation.org/coalhistory/timeline.htm
3.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/history/timelines/coal.html
4.
http://ghostdepot.com/rg/images/utah/bigham%20mine%20steam%20shovel%20loading%201925%20art.jpg
5.
http://trinityconsultants.com/downloads/Air%20Quality%20Permitting%20fo%20a%20New%20Coal-powered%20plant.pdf
6.
http://www.coaleducation.org/coalhistory/tech2/e10.htm
Coal
Coal was first mentioned in a book
on meteorology by Aristotle in the 400Õs[1].
In the 1300Õs coal was used commonly in europe1. In 1748 coal was
first produced in the US2, 3. The first commercial shipment from the
U.S. was in 17583. 1762 was the year where coal was used in the
military to produce shot, shells, and other military materials3. In
the modern a steam engine was patented by James watt early steam engines used
coal to produce this steam that powered them in 17693. The principal
fuel used by steam powered trains to was coal3. The trains were a
vital link between markets and an coal mines in 18003. Oil and gas
used for lighting was produced by coal3. Households and steamboats
use coal for fuel3. The first city to light streets with gas made
from coal was a Baltimore in if Maryland in 18161. "McLean
drift bank" was the first commercial mine in 1820[2]. The steam shovel was invented in
1839. Thomas Edison Developed the
first practical coal fired electric-generating station in 1882[3].
The First power plant Built by the general electric Company was in 18961. The first mine car filled with coal was
loaded In 19136. The
first electric power plant to use pulverized coal was In 19182. In
1956 railroads converted from coal to diesel fuel2. The 1961 coal was the major fuel used
by electric companies in the United States to generate electricity3.
$1 billion was spent on air pollution control equipment by industries led a
study done by national acid precipitation assessment program in 19803. And in 1986 that clean coal technology
act passed3. In 1990
the U.S. coal production was 1 billion tons a year three3, 2. The U.N. past the Kyoto treaty in 1997
this treaty requires a 5.2 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from
39 nations from 1990. This 5.2 percent reduction must happen with in years 2008
to 20125. In 2,002
companies that mine coal reclaimed the 2 million acre of the mined land the
reclaimed land and must be returned to its natural state3. A space$1 billion, ten year
demonstration project was sponsored by the United States to create the worldÕs
first coal-based, zero emissions, Electricity and hydrogen power plant3
- http://facweb.stvincent.edu/eec/PDF/Modules/CoalFormationandTimeline.pdf>.
- http://www.coaleducation.org/coalhistory/timeline.htm
- http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/history/timelines/coal.html
- http://ghostdepot.com/rg/images/utah/bigham%20mine%20steam%20shovel%20loading%201925%20art.jpg>.
- http://trinityconsultants.com/downloads/Air%20Quality%20Permitting%20fo%20a%20New%20Coal-powered%20plant.pdf>.
- http://www.coaleducation.org/coalhistory/tech2/e10.htm
- http://www.jcoal.or.jp/overview_en/images/kankyou_03.jpg
Oil Timeline
1400 – Oil was originally used by Native American in the 1400Õs for medical purposes
1859 – Drake
Well – The first oil well, called the Drake Well was dug in
Titusville, Pennsylvania. This well opened the doors to the oil and gas
industry. Colonel Edwin Drake invented this well. Drake invented a drill that
was used to extract oil from the Earth. The drill the he invented was meant to
be able to drill up to 1000 feet; however, he struck oil at just over 69 feet.
After Drake Well was made, people immediately jumped onto the business idea.
The first oil company, Seneca Oil Company, was created just after DrakeÕs
invention1
1885 – ÔShellÕ Gas Company
1886 – Gas Powered Cars
1900 – Many local Lafayette gas companies began to form
1908 – Ford - Ford introduced his model T automobile. This car was rapidly sold throughout the US community. The cars run on gasoline, thus Oil companies began to thrive, selling gas to gas stations which constantly had cars filling up gas throughout the day
1910 – First over-water oil well
1911 – Companies expand search from Central American to find more oil deposits
1913 – FordÕs assembly line builds more cars better, and faster. More need for oil in community for gas
1914 – Oil in Venezuela. Oil businesses spread further
1917 – Oil used to power military vehicles and other military equipment
1930 – Oil in Texas
1945 – U.S. military agrees to offer protection to Saudi Arabia in return for oil.
1962 – Kennedy
Oil Law - In 1962, John F. Kennedy passed a law that lowered oilmenÕs
profits 15 percent. The law invested money into oil abroad. However, In Jimmy
CarterÕs term as President, he dropped this law, and oil companies gained more
control2
1968 – Oil discovered in Alaska
1980 – Oil companies continue to gain control
2003 – Oil prices soar
1. http://www.essortment.com/oilgasindustry_ryjr.htm
2. http://www.oilempire.us/peak-timeline.html
Oil Summary
Oil, a very commonly used and powerful energy source has been around
for millions of years. Oil is a non-renewable energy source, which means that
it can be used completely up. It is a fossil fuel, meaning that it is made up
of once living organism. Millions of years ago, plants fell into the ocean and
sunk into the sand at the bottom. As it went through the sand, pressure from
the depth and weight of the ocean sealed the plant debris under the ocean. This
caused a concentrated trap where the plant decomposed into natural gases, and
under these conditions, oil.1
-Alex Dopkin
Orinda Academy 2008
1. http://www.geotech.org/survey/geotech/Oil.pdf
Natural Gas Timeline
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1925 |
The welded pipeline was built in Louisiana to Texas and was 200 miles long. |
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1937 |
Natural gas distributors added mercaptan creating a rotten-egg smell to the odorless natural gas, so that leaks were easily detected. |
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1906-1970 |
Demand for natural gas grew fifty times bigger in the homes of the U.S |
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1940-1960 |
The nation expanded its pipeline network, leading to its rapid growth of natural gas markets. In the 1950s and 1960s, pipelines covered thousands of miles throughout the United States. If we laid the pipe lines end to end it would stretch almost twelve times around the earth. |
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1971 |
Gas production reached 435 thousand cubic feet per well per day |
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1973 |
Before the U.S. natural gas production slowed production and went through a long period of decline, they reached a record-high of 21.7 trillion cubic feet. |
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1983 |
U.S residential users paid 10.06 dollars per thousand cubic feet |
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1986 to present |
The consumption
of natural gas became higher than the production of natural gas. Tankers brought
shipments of natural gas as a liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Algeria and,
recently, from other countries. New technology for drilling made offshore natural gas sites more useful. |
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1990 |
The Clean Air Act Amendments required many fossil fuels to pollute less. The use of natural gas increased when it was promoted as cleaner burning fuel in power generation and transportation. |
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1998 |
5.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas was being used for vehicles. |
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2000 |
Natural gas reached 23.3 trillion cubic feet. |
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2004 |
Over one forth of U.S natural gas came from Texas. |
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2005 |
The hurricane season in 2005 caused a huge amount of damage to the U.S. natural gas and petroleum infrastructure. The Gulf of Mexico, one of the nation's largest sources of oil and gas production was affected by hurricane Katrina causing a decline in natural gas production. This caused the U.S. residential users of natural gas 16.66 dollars per thousand cubic feet. |
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2006 |
31,687 natural gas wells were drilled. |
Natural Gas
[i][4]The history of natural gas dates to the early16th century. Indians first noticed gases rising from places in the earth along the western Appalachian Highlands. They used this gas as a means to light fires and cook. Today, natural gas is used for heat, to produce electricity and most recently to power small gas-fired generators called micro turbines. By 1900 natural gas was discovered in 17 different states. In the past 40 years, the use of natural gas grew dramatically. Today, natural gas accounts for about a quarter of the energy use in the United States.[ii]
Natural gas affects the lives of many especially in the field of scientific discovery and research. An inventor by the name of Robert Bunsen used natural gas to invent the Bunsen burner. The Bunsen burner is a device created by mixing natural gas with air in specific proportions, which creates a flame that can be safely used to cook and heat. The Bunsen burner provided many Americans the opportunity to use natural gas to better control a fireÕs flame and monitor the heat.
Through the 19th century, natural gas was used mostly as a source of light. At this time there were no pipelines or infrastructure for transporting natural gas far distances. For this reason natural gas was not used in homes for eating or cooking. The first significant pipeline was built in 1891, which was 120 miles long carrying natural gas from wells in central Indiana to Chicago. However, Òit wasn't until after World War II that welding techniques, pipe rolling, and metallurgical advances allowed for the construction of reliable pipelines.Ó (NaturalGas.org)These developments in manufacturing and construction made natural gas transportable, accessible, and readily available to many Americans.
Pipelines and the transportation of natural gas made it available and possible to use for many to not only heat homes, but also operate household appliances such as water heaters, stoves, fans, and furnaces. Once natural gas became highly available, industry began to use it in manufacturing and processing plants. At this same time, natural gas was introduced as a means to heat boilers used to generate electricity.
Although natural gas has had a positive affect on our society, it is also can cause of pollution. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas release pollutants into the atmosphere when burned, which can contaminate the air and environment. However, natural gas is the least pollutant of the fossil fuels. Natural gas burns cleaner than coal or petroleum, because it has less carbon than the other fossil fuel. Natural gas has less sulfur and nitrogen compounds, and it puts less ash in the air when burned than coal or petroleum fuels.[iii]
ii http://www.cameco.com/common/images/u101/fuel_cycle.gif
iii http://lsa.colorado.edu/essence/texts/naturalgas.htm
Nuclear
|
1938 |
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman are the first to demonstrate Nuclear Fission. |
|
1942 |
With the help of the University of Chicago Enrico Fermi initiates the first self-sustained chain reaction. |
|
1951 |
An experimental breeder reactor produced the first usable atomic electric power. |
|
1955 |
Arco, Idaho is the first town powered by nuclear power. |
|
1957 |
First civilian nuclear power plant to generate power in Santa Susana, CA. First full-scale nuclear power plant in Shippingport, Pennsylvania. |
|
1959 |
The Dresden-1 power plant in Illinois is the first non-government funding plant to achieve a self-sustaining chain reaction. |
|
1963 |
The Oyster Creek Plant is the first plant ordered as an alterative to a fossil-fuel plant. |
|
1965 |
First nuclear reactor operated in space. |
|
1974 |
First 1000-Megawatt plant went into service. |
|
1979 |
Major accident at plant on Three Mile Island. Leads to higher safety regulations. |
|
1980 |
Nuclear energy generates more energy than natural gas. |
|
1984 |
Nuclear power is the second largest power source in U.S. second only to coal. |
|
1986 |
WorldÕs worst nuclear accident happens in Chernobyl, Ukraine (then USSR). |
|
1989 |
Nuclear power accounts for 19 percent of U.S. energy. |
|
2002 |
Nuclear power accounts for 16 percent of the WorldÕs electricity. |
1.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/history/timelines/nuclear.html
Our objective for this benchmark is to illustrate a clear understanding of energy sources today. I have compiled several graphs from outside data involving 8 countries. The graphs below are examples of different energy sources.
Graph
from source 1.
As you can see of the 9 countries used in this study, France is by far the most dependent upon Nuclear Power. Nearly 41% of Frances power is Nuclear. As Compared to the United States because only 9% of the United States power is nuclear. The United States is most dependent upon oil and natural gas. Oil s much more used and causes much more damage to the environment than Nuclear energy. Chernobyl was the one great nuclear disaster since Nuclear power became popular.
Graph from source 1.
___________________________
Hydroelectricity
The history of hydroelectricity first began when the first water wheel meant to generate electricity was created. As time flew by, many other hydroelectric plants were being built all over the world (e.g. Niagara Falls). Because of the need for more of these plants, the United States issued the Reclamation Act, which stated that the western desert would be irrigated for more farmlands. This led to the creation of more hydroelectric plants; there were six damming projects approved in 1903[5].
Prior to the usage of bigger dams, hydroelectric plants used small dams. The reason for this is the fact that at the time, hydroelectric plants were much more efficient than fossil fuel plants[6]. However as the demand for electricity rose, the dams for hydroelectric plants needed to be bigger in order to store more water, resulting in more electricity to be generated[7].
The way how hydroelectric plants work is not so complex. First off, most hydroelectric plants rely on dams to hold water back. There are gates on the dam that open, which causes gravity to pull the water through something called a pen stock, which is a pipeline that leads to the turbine of the plant. As the water goes down the pipeline, it builds up pressure, which is needed because when the water meets the turbine, it hits the blades of the turbine, which causes the turbine to work. By work, the magnets inside the turbine begin to rotate past the copper coils, which produces a current. The powerhouse converts that current into a higher-voltage current. As for the used water, it is carried out through the pipelines, which are connected to the river.
As with everything, there are pros and cons. The pros to hydroelectric plants are some of the following: produces power, controls flooding, simple to make, power it produces is clean, inexpensive, and renewable, plants can be shutdown immediately, and very few breakdowns. The cons to hydroelectric plants are some of the following: produces power in exchange for flooding valleys, disrupts natural seasonal changes, can destroy ecosystems, dams being expensive to build, and dams causing if a mass flood if it breaks.
One of the environmental problems caused by dams is its effect on fish migration. For example, any type of fish (salmon, for instance) are finding it more difficult to return to their birthplaces in order to create more offspring. The reason for this is simple: the hydroelectric plants are blocking the ways. Because of this problem, such fish are becoming extinct because if they cannot produce more offspring, how are they ever going to extend their lineage? In order to fix this problem, hydroelectric plants have to find a way to prevent this from happening.
Timeline of Hydroelectricity: 1900Õs[8]
1908: First electric generating plant built on the Columbia River.
1930: Washington and Oregon voters approve laws creating Public Utility Districts. PUDs were made to assure the public that they were gong to pay a low, reliable service cost.
1933: Construction of Grand Coulee Dam begins.
1935: Federal Water Power Act becomes part of the Federal Power Act to regulate interstate trade in electricity.
1948: Vanport Flood on Columbia River destroys Vanport, Oregon. This leads to the development of a multi-use reservoir storage plan.
1961: The United States and Canada sign The Columbia River Treaty. The treaty states that Canada can build two storage dams and one dam for generation. The United States gets the benefits of greater power and flood control.
1966: The Public Power Council is formed to act as the voice for publicly owned utilities in the Northwest.
1967: The Pacific Northwest-Pacific Southwest Intertie connects the Northwest with California. This was the only way to move electricity between the Northwest and California.
1973: Congress passes the Endangered Species Act - a law that protects endangered species.
1978: Congress passes Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act - a law that requires the purchase of electricity from qualified power producers.
1980: The Northwest Power Planning Council is formed. The role of this council is to develop a plan to meet Northwest energy needs.
1988: The Northwest Power Planning Council designates 44,000 miles of Northwest streams as "protected areas" because of their importance as critical fish and wildlife habitat.
1991 -1995: The Northwest Power Planning Council estimates that fish and wildlife protection reduced firm electric generation by about 850 megawatts annually.
Objective 2: Your task is to clearly demonstrate and understanding of the processes involved in the production of nuclear energy in countries around the world.
Nuclear Cycle
Image from: <http://www.wnti.co.uk/UserFiles/Image/content/02_a_01_a_4B.gif>
The nuclear fuel cycle is powered by the element called Uranium, which is a radioactive metal that can be found in the earth's crust. Uranium is 500 times more ample than gold and is nearly as common as tin. It can be found in most rocks, soil, rivers and sea water. Uranium concentrations can be found at about four parts per million in granite. Granite makes up about 60% of the earth's crust. It can be found in some fertilizers with a concentration of up to 400 parts per million. Most radioactivity with uranium is due to the fact that other minerals derive from it by radioactive decay processes, left behind by the processes of milling and mining.1 There are many areas around the world where there is a high enough concentration of uranium in minerals where they can extract uranium. Extractable uranium is called uranium ore.
Uranium mining and milling are the ways in which uranium is extracted from the ground and purified for use of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is taken out the ground by mining or by a system called in situ leaching or ISL. During open pit mining they make a deep pit, usually more than 120 meters deep.1 there must be a very large hole on the surface of the pit because the ore in which they mine is very large. For underground mines, it has less of a chance of collapsing, but they can't mine as much ore as an open pit can. The other method for mining and extracting ore is in situ leaching, where they take groundwater that is oxygenated and the water is circulated through an ore body that is very porous to dissolve the uranium and bring it to the top. The ISL might be slightly acidic in order to keep the uranium in the solution that is brought to the surface.
Uranium milling is the process in which uranium is made pure. This is usually carried out very close to the uranium mine, and produces a uranium oxide concentration. This oxide can usually contain more than 80% uranium and can possibly contain as little as 0.1%. The first process in milling is crushing up the ore and grinding it up by leaching, or use of an acid to dissolve the uranium. Next they will remove the uranium from the acid used to break it up and then they precipitate it. Once it is dried they pack it into drums, which usually hold 200-liter concentration. The excess rock materials from this process are called tailings. These are usually stored near the mine in engineered facilities.
The next step in creating nuclear energy is the conversion step. Conversion is the process of making uranium a solid to a gas. It is necessary for the uranium to be in a gaseous form for it to be enriched, the next step of the process. First uranium gets converted to uranium dioxide, at a conversion facility, and then converted into uranium hexaflouride, which is ready to be enriched at the enrichment plant.
Enrichment
is the next step, where they take the converted uranium that is usually a
mixture of two isotopes. Only 0.7% of the uranium is ÒfissileÓ, which means
that it can go through the process of fission, which is how energy is produced.
The isotope that is ÒfissileÓ is uranium 235 or U-235, the remainder is U-238.
Most nuclear reactors require a high concentration in the uranium and U-235
isotope. Enrichment will produce about 5% U-235 by removing about 85% of all
the U-238. They do this by separating the uranium hexafluoride gas and having
it go into two streams, one stream carries uranium enriched to the needed level
and one which is progressively depleted in U-235, called ÒtailsÓ.1
There are two types of large commercial scale enrichment processes which use uranium hexafluoride. These types use the mass difference in the molecules in order to separate the two isotopes. This enriched uranium hexafluoride is then converted into uranium oxide.
Next, there is fuel fabrication. To fabricate the fuel, they press the uranium oxide, made from the enrichment process, into a pellet shape and baked at temperatures of over 1400 degrees Celsius. These baked pellets are then put inside a metal tube to form fuel rods, which are ready to go into the reactor. They keep the dimensions of the rods the same, so there is no inconsistency in the fuel bundles. If a rod is misshaped it can release radiation, which is called criticality.
The rods that are fabricated are then used inside a nuclear reactor. The nuclei of uranium 235 release heat, which heats water into steam. The steam then goes through a tube to a turbine, where the steam drives the turbine and creates electricity. Some of the U-238 that is in the rods are turned into plutonium in the core of the reactor. The fissioning of the uranium is much like coal, natural gas or oil because it is heated to create steam to turn a turbine.
The used fuel from the reactor will eventually be removed from the reactor because the fuel gets too high a concentration of fission fragments and heavy elements, making it inefficient to use. After a year or two the fuel is removed from the nuclear reactor. Those fuel rods at one point produced about 36 million kilowatt per hour of electricity.1 The removed fuel bundle then needs to be stored, because it emits both radiation and heat. At a storage facility they will put the fuel bundle into a pool of water, which insulates the radiation and absorbs the used fuelÕs heat.
Nuclear
used fuel can be reprocessed and reused for power. The used fuel contains about
1% of non-fissioned, 1% plutonium, 3% fission fragments and 95% uranium 238.1
The reprocessing of the fuel takes the uranium and plutonium and turns it into
re-useable fuel for the nuclear reactor. This greatly reduces the amount of
nuclear waste that is given off. To reprocess the fuel, they take the uranium,
which has a greater percent of uranium 235, which can be reused after
conversion and enrichment. It is then mixed with plutonium making mixed oxide
fuel, where the oxides of the two elements are combined together. In the mixed
oxide fuel the plutonium replaces the U-235 in normal uranium oxide fuel.1
The
waste after reuse can eventually become unprocessable and cannot be reused or
reprocessed, in this case there is no way to dispose of the nuclear waste. They
still have yet not found a place where they can store the used nuclear waste
safely. This is the major downside to nuclear energy that there is no way to
dispose of it.
