Gymnasia
#41
Control
of Nuclear Weapons and Current Challenges
Written
by: Pavel Beloglazov
Sergei Ovchinnikov
Supervisor: Elena Patrusheva
Novouralsk
2009
BENCHMARK I
Objective 1
ÒThe torch that has been entrusted
to my care is the most powerful weapon in the world. It is powerful enough to
burn down civilization as we know it, or to be a beacon that will light the
future for us and for the rest of the world. It is our choice to make. I speak
today not only to our allies, but to those countries in the Soviet camp. I say
to them now, as we prepare to move into the twenty-first century, that there is
no longer any room for confrontation and that we must learn to make the phrase
one world become a reality. And any other course can only create a holocaust
from which no nation would ever recover. I am well aware of the vast chasms
that lie between us and the iron curtain countries, but the first priority of
this administration will be to build unshakable bridges across those
chasmsÕ. These are the words from
the book ÔWindmills of the GodsÕ by Sidney Sheldon [1,
p.8]. It was first printed in 1987 and reissued in 2005. The book is a
work of fiction and all the characters are, of course, fictitious.
Nevertheless, it shows that though the Cold War ended 20 years ago the topic is still alive and people must remember the lessons
of history not to let a new confrontation grow and new wars begin.
Nuclear weapons were meant to be nuclear deterrent. But their role was
changing in the process of history depending on political, economical,
geopolitical, economical situation in the world. Nuclear weapons have greatly influenced the world policy and
world scientific technologies; as a matter of fact they have irreversibly
changed the way of life and the way of thinking of whole nations as well as
individuals.
The history of nuclear
weapons displays the process of the development of nuclear weapons. Their
history began in the 1930s. The first scientific discoveries in nuclear
physics were made at that time. It continued through the nuclear arms race and
nuclear testing of the Cold War (the term was first used by B.Baruch during a congressional
debate in 1947) [2. p. 366], consequently lead
to the questions of proliferation at the end of the 20th century and possible
use for terrorism in the early 21st century.
The first nuclear fission weapons, which are also known as "atomic
bombs," were developed jointly by the United States of America, Great Britain
and Canada during World War II. It was called the Manhattan Project. In 1939
United States scientists convinced President F. Roosevelt to confirm a program
to study the potential military use of nuclear fission.
How were the events
developing?
ÒBy 1942 the project
had a code-name Manhattan, after the site of Columbia University, where much of
the primary research was done. Research was also carried out at the
Universities of California and Chicago. In 1943 a laboratory to construct the
bomb was set at Los Alamos, N.M., and staffed by the scientists headed by J.R.
Oppenheimer. Production was also carried out at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and
Hanford, Washington. The first bomb was exploded in a field test at Alamogordo
air base in New Mexico.Ó [3. p. 1007]
In August 1945 two
were dropped on Japan ending the Pacific War.
Then the U.S.S.R started to develop their atomic bomb project. Not long after
that both countries developed "hydrogen bombs"(even more powerful
fusion weapons).
During the Cold War, the USA and the Soviet Union acquired enormous
nuclear weapons arsenals. Both countries placed many of them onto rockets which
could hit targets in any place in the world. The Cold War had political, economic,
and propaganda causes on both sides. One of the characters from the above
mentioned book says ÒDo you know the biggest problem with the world today?
There are no more statesmen. Countries are being run by politicians.Ó [1. p. 15] It shows that the influence of the politics
on peopleÕ minds on both sides of the Òiron curtainÓ was immense. Several times
the
world was on the brink
of the war. It is difficult to say from todayÕs life whose propaganda was
stronger, both
countries succeeded. The situation couldnÕt but trouble peopleÕs minds. In 1950
Ray Bradbury wrote his ÒThe Martian ChroniclesÓ, which is
generally accounted a science-fiction classic in its depiction of materialistic
Earthmen exploiting and corrupting an idyllic Martian civilization.
The fact is that Ray
BradburyÕs characters are quite aware of the possible nuclear war; they
understand it as an inevitable fact and are looking for safe ways to live. His
charactersÕ thoughts reflect the troubles of those people who felt the
atmosphere of the possible nuclear war:
-
ÒÉHe shook his fists at them and told them that he wanted to get away from
Earth; anybody with any sense wanted to get away from Earth. There was going to
be a big atomic war on Earth in about two years, and he didnÕt want to be here
when it happened. He and thousands of others like him, if they had any sense,
would go to MarsÉÓ /March 2000: THE TAXPAYER / [4]
- ÒÉI know, we came up here to get away
from things—politics, the atom bomb, war, pressure groups, prejudice,
laws—I knowÉÓ / November 2005: THE LUGGAGE STORE/ [4]
These
thoughts troubled not only fictitious characters but quite real people in real
life.
In spite
of the fact that World War II ruined many countries and killed millions of
people of different nationalities politics and competitiveness still continued
to play the major role in the world.
In 1947–1948 the
U.S.A. brought17 western and southern European countries under their
influence. It was the so – called Marshall Plan (a sponsored
program aimed to rehabilitate the economies of those countries). The Soviets
had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. The Cold war was at its peak in 1948-53; it was the time of the
formation of NATO (1949), the victory of the communists in the Chinese civil
war (1949), the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Berlin blockade. From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tension relaxed but the confrontation
remained. In 1955 a unified military organization among the Soviet – bloc
countries, the Warsaw Pact was formed. President Eisenhower being excited by the rapid Soviet technological achievements thought
about a program of developing a long-rage spy plane. In 1954 the project
AQUATONE was launched and in 1956 U2s began their spy flights over the
territory of the Soviet Union. [23] Another intense stage occurred in 1958-62 with the Cuban missile crisis,
which resulted in a weapons buildup by both sides. It was the time of major
confrontation between the U.S.A and the Soviet Union over the presence of
Soviet nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba. What happened in this time? ÒIn October 1962 a U.S. spy plane detected a ballistic missile on a
launching site in Cuba. President J. F. Kennedy placed a naval blockade around
the island, and for several days the U.S. and the Soviet Union hovered on the
brink of war. N. Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the missiles in return for
a secret commitment from the U.S. to withdraw U.S. missiles from Turkey and
never to invade Cuba. The incident fueled the nuclear arm race.Ó [5. p. 420] The following picture shows the remains of the Berlin Wall erected in
1961 between East and West Berlin and fortunately destroyed but only in 1989. The other picture shows the remains of the Berlin War and the
commemorative alley to those people who tried to cross the border between two
Germanys and died. These monuments nowadays remind people of the years of the
Cold War and make them ask questions ÒHow could it happen that politics killed
those people?Õ What did it mean? What did it
have in common with the famous film? ÒSDI was intended to defend
the U.S.A. from a full-fledged Soviet attack by intercepting ICBMs in flight.
The interception was to be effected by technology including space- and
earth-based laser stations and air and ground-based missiles. The space
component of SDI led to its being ironically dubbed ÔStar WarsÓ after the
popular film.Ó [6, p.1549] Some more quotes of Ray BradburyÕs characters,
showing to our mind the authorÕs concern: -ÒÉWhat could I do?
Argue with you? ItÕs simply me against the whole crooked grinding greedy setup
on Earth. TheyÕll be flopping their filthy atoms bombs up here, fighting for
bases to have wars. IsnÕt it enough theyÕve ruined one planet, without ruining
another; do they have to foul someone elseÕs manger?...Ó / THE MOON BE STILL AS
BRIGHT/ [5] - ÒÉYou heard the congressional speeches before we left. If things work
out they hope to establish three atomic research and atom bomb depots on Mars.
That means Mars is finishedÉÓ / THE MOON BE STILL AS BRIGHT/ [5] The older generation in both
countries remembers the Cold War time quite well. The news media often spoke
about the probability of nuclear war. People worried about it very much, they
wanted to bring an end to this tension. In some streets of Novouralsk you can
still see a sign ÔBomb shelterÓ. One day people in the Soviet
Union knew about a little girl from Maine called Samantha Smith. She wrote to
Soviet Secretary Mr. Andropov twice. He didnÕt answer her first letter. But it
was very impolite not to answer her second letter. When in April 1983, Samantha
received an answer, she became an international celebrity. Samantha had asked Mr.
Andropov if he planned to start a nuclear war and, if not, how he planned to
prevent it. He assured her that he and the Soviet people didnÕt want this war. The following photo shows the
authorsÕ presentation before their classmates. We are talking about Samantha
Smith whose courage and persistence (a good example for some politicians)
really amazed the students. Our English
teachers told us at that lesson that they remembered many things connected with
Samantha Smith and the years of the Cold War. For example, how they were taught
to run to a bomb shelter or to use a gas mask; in schools there were placards
on the walls showing how to act if a nuclear bomb exploded. Source: designed by the authors. The following table shows the
major world war events and the development of nuclear technologies beginning
with the late 1930s. Date Political
situation Some
important facts 1939 World War II begins. Germany invades Poland. Great Britain and France
declare a war on Germany. Albert Einstein warns Roosevelt of the danger of Nazi Germany's
forestalling other states in the development of an atomic bomb. The U.S., British, and German governments separately begin to explore
the possibility of building an atomic bomb. Leo Szilard performs an experiment demonstrating the possibility of a
chain reaction of atoms. In the Soviet Union Igor Kurchatov organizes the first Soviet study of
the problem. 1940 World War II continues. Italy supports Germany. German refugee physicists Rudolf Peierls and Otto Japanese scientists initiate research on an atomic bomb. 1941 World War II continues. The Great Patriotic War begins. Japan (then Germany and Italy) are in war with the U.S. Glenn Seaborg (University of
California-Berkeley) discovers that neptunium emits electrons, thereby
forming new element- plutonium. 1942 World War II continues. The Pacific Company. Fermi and his colleagues produce the first controlled and sustained
nuclear fission reaction. 1943 World War II continues. The North African Company. The Teheran
Conference. Igor Kurchatov
directs the Soviet atomic bomb program at Laboratory No. 2 of the Academy of
Sciences. The Manhattan
Project. 1944 World II continues. The territory of the Soviet Union is freed. An Indian physicist Homi Jehangir Bhabha begins to establish a nuclear
research program. 1945 Hiroshima and Nagasaki are bombed. The end of the Pacific War. The end
of the World War II. The world's first atomic bomb (The Gadget) is exploded by scientists working under
Oppenheimer at the ÔTrinityÕ test site near Alamogordo, New Mexico. 1946- 1947 The Cold
War begins. The Marshall Plan. Communist regimes are
installed in eastern Europe. The UN General Assembly establishes the AEC and calls for the
elimination of nuclear weapons. BritainÕs first nuclear reactor at Harwell begins to operate. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff develop nuclear war plants that
estimate 150 bombs with total yield of 3 megatons (as Nagasaki bomb). As early as 1947 Stalin gives priority to ICBM development. 1948-1949 The Soviets install left-wing governments in the countries of Eastern
Europe liberated by the Red Army; blockade the Western-
held sectors of West Berlin. The United States and its European allies form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Chinese communists come to power. The NSC approves directive NSC-30, ÒPolicy on Atomic WarfareÓ. Plutonium separation starts (near Chelyabinsk). The Soviets explode their first atomic warhead, thus ending the
American monopoly on the atomic bomb. 1960-1969 U2 piloted by Francis Gary Powers is shot down. The Cuban missile crisis. John Kennedy is assassinated. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty is signed. 1970-1979 The USSR sends troops to
Afghanistan. The European antinuclear movement grows supported by the British
Labour Party, the Greens in West Germany, and Dutch and Belgian social
democrats. Three Mile
Island accident – 1979 India detonates a
nuclear device in the Rājasthān desert. Pakistan declares its
nuclear program for peaceful purposes. 1980- 1989 The United States invade Grenada. Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or "Star
Wars". Falkland Island war between the United Kingdom and Argentina. In August 1988
the South African foreign
minister said that South Africa had Òthe capability to (produce a nuclear
bomb)Ó Argentina, Brazil, South Korea, and Taiwan also had the scientific and
industrial base to develop and produce nuclear weapons, but they did not
seem to have active programs. Chernobyl
accident - 1986 U.S.
production of neutron bomb was postponed in 1978 and resumed in 1981. The Soviet
stockpile reached its peak of about 33,000 warheads in 1988. 1990s The end of the Cold War. The communist regimes collapse. U.S. President George Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev sign
protocols to earlier treaties that provide for advance notification and
on-site inspections of tests above 35 kilotons. France and
Chin ratified NPT in 1992. Source: designed by the authors.
Data are from [7], [8], [16], [23] In 1950 Ray BradburyÕs characters could predict that the amount of
nuclear weapons could be immense in the following years. - Ò...If,Ó said his wife slowly, watching the sky, ÒthereÕs no atomic
war. I donÕt trust any atom bombs. ThereÕs so many of them on Earth now, you
never can tell...Ó/ November 2005: THE OFF SEASON/ [5] In 1985 there were about 65,000 active weapons in the world. As the
processes of disarmament and nonproliferation started they eventually led to
the lessening of nuclear weapons. In 2002 there were about 20,000 active
nuclear weapons. Many of the "decommissioned" weapons were simply
stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed. As of 2007, the total number
was expected to continue to decline by 30%-50% over the next decade. [15] The nations that possess nuclear
weapons warheads are informally known in global politics as the
"Nuclear Club". If we count five nuclear powers from NPT and three
non-NPT nuclear powers plus Israel we will see that they make about 5 % from
the total number of the countries in the world but they may present 100%
threat to the world peace if they do not find mutual agreements. Nuclear weapons are devices whose explosive force and destructive
potential are enormous. Coming back to Ray Bradbury we can see what his characters could see after
the nuclear bombÕs explosion and feel the destructive force of the weapon: - ÒÉEarth changed in the black sky. It caught fire. Part of it seemed to
come apart in a million pieces, as if a gigantic jigsaw had exploded. It
burned with an unholy dripping glare for a minute, three times normal size,
and then dwindledÉÓ / November 2005: THE OFF SEASON/ [5] - ÒÉThe entire west face of the house was black, save
for five places. Here the silhouette in paint of a man mowing a lawn. Here,
as in a photograph, a woman bent to pick flowers. Still farther over, their
images burned on wood in one titanic instant, a small boy, hands flung into
the air; higher up, the image of a thrown ball, and opposite him a girl,
hands raised to catch a ball which never came downÉÓ /August 2026: THERE
WILL COME SOFT RAINS/ [5] Nuclear weapons are called atomic weapon, or thermonuclear weapon bomb or other warhead that is delivered by an
aircraft, missile, Earth satellite, or other strategic delivery system. Nuclear weapons derive their power from the energy released when a
heavy nucleus is divided, called fission, or when light
nuclei are forced together, called fusion.
These weapons differ in the limits of the released energy. The Tsar Bomba of the USSR happened to
be the largest one ever
detonated and it released an energy equivalent to over 50 million tons (50 megatons) of TNT. All
the five NPT nuclear weapon states have conducted thermonuclear tests. The fact about India having this test is
controversial. Most nuclear weapons are designed for certain purposes. Nuclear
explosion releases energy in the following forms The neutron bomb delivers
blast and heat effects to an area of only a few hundred yards in radius. But
radiation penetrates in the earth and in the air within a larger area. This
radiation is extremely destructive to living tissue. Among other nuclear weapons boosted fission weapon can be named. It deals both with fission and
fusion. Tactical nuclear weapons
include á artillery
projectiles, á demolition
munitions (land mines), á antisubmarine
depth bombs, á torpedoes, á short -range
ballistic and cruise missiles. [15] Conclusion. Concluding
this part we can say that nuclear engineering happened to be the result of
scientistsÕ curiosity and thirst for new ideas. Unfortunately, in the course
of history it found its place in the military sphere. The unstable situation before World
War II stimulated nuclear weapon researches, the war period even witnessed
the nuclear catastrophe in Japan. Political egoism, ambitions and propaganda
led to a long period of the Cold War putting the world on the brink of a new
war, constructing weapons of mass destruction, developing an espionage web,
changing lives and breaking families of a great number of civilians,
scientists, statesmen and public figures. Nuclear weapons were becoming more
sophisticated growing in number.
Since the 1960s there have been signed a number of treaties and
agreements banning the development of nuclear weapons. Though the Cold War
ended the process of disarmament was not easy. On the 7 of February 2009 in the News Program of the
Russian Television it was said that the new elected President of the United
States of America offered Russia to eliminate the number of nuclear warheads
up to 1,000 on both sides by the year 1913. The information was said to be
reliable though the source was not mentioned. In the period of the Cold War
the Soviet Union and the United States of America were leading countries in
arm racing. Though the world has changed nowadays they can set an example of
demonstrating their political will and common sense in the sphere of
disarmament. Governments must not let these statements be true for the following years: - Ò...What are you looking at so hard, Dad?Ó ÒI was looking for Earthian logic, common sense,
good government, peace, and responsibility.Ó ÒAll that up there?Ó ÒNo. I didnÕt find it. ItÕs not there any more.
Maybe itÕll never be there again. Maybe we fooled ourselves that it was ever
thereÉÓ /October 2026: THE MILLION-YEAR PICNIC/ [5] ÔToday it is very hot
again. You write that you swam in a school swimming pool. How much did you manage to cover? You are angry with me, sonny, because I didnÕtÕ teach you to swim
when you were a child. Please, donÕt. I didnÕt do it not because I canÕt swim. The thing is that
I have very sad reminiscences connected with a swimming pool. My school was the
oldest one in Hiroshima. When I began going to the secondary school the
Pacific war was coming to an end. In the morning on the 6th of
August we were sent to sort the pieces of the ruined buildings. Suddenly we
heard a planeÕs booming and something flashed. There was fire everywhere.
People rushed to the swimming pool. The air was so hot that it was dangerous
to stay in the swimming pool any longer. Those who could move ran to the mountains. Later I knew that there had been so many dead
people in the swimming pool that the water wasnÕt seen. ThatÕs why, sunny, your father
doesnÕt like swimming pools.Õ [10, p.52] These are the words from the reminiscences of a person who managed to
survive. A lot of other horrified reminiscences are published in a book
ÔHiroshima accusesÕ by Takesi Ito. The book was translated into Russian and
published in 1984. It is still topical as the author describes the Japanese
war policy as well as how the resolution to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki was
made. Was it worth doing? The authorÕs answer is Ôdefinitely noÕ. Nothing
can be more precious than a personÕs life. Paul Warfield Tibbets is known for being the pilot of the Enola Gay,
the first aircraft to drop an atomic bomb codenamed Little Boy in the
history of warfare. IsnÕt it cynical that on August 5, 1945, Tibbets
formally named B-29 serial number 44-86292 Enola Gay after his mother (she
was named after the heroine, Enola, of a novel her father had liked)? What about those killed 70,000 Japanese
people who also liked reading novels? Almost 4.4 square miles were completely
burned out, more than 70,000 were injured. A second bomb, dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, killed between 35,000 and 40,000
people, injured a like number, and devastated 1.8 square miles. Tibbets expressed no regret regarding the decision to drop the bomb.
In a 1975 interview he said: "I'm proud that I was able to start with
nothing, plan it, and have it work as perfectly as it did... I sleep clearly
every night". In March 2005, he stated, "If you give me the same
circumstances, I'd do it again." [11] There mustnÕt be any
more Òthe same circumstancesÓ in the world. Though it is no doubt that there
are enough politicians, military men and terrorist groups who would like to
show their force in Òthe same circumstancesÓ and then Ôsleep clearly every
nightÕ. Nuclear engineers are employed on weapons programs in such activities
as The first atomic test was detonated by the United States at the
Trinity site on July 16, 1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20
kilotons. Less than 2 months later the Japanese cities were bombed. Since
that time throughout the twentieth century, most nations that have developed
nuclear weapons have tested them. What are nuclear tests needed for? Nuclear weapons tests
are aimed to determine such capabilities of nuclear weapons as á
effectiveness á
yield á
explosion Testing nuclear weapons can give such information as á
how the weapons work á
how the weapons behave under various conditions á
how structures behave when subjected to nuclear
explosions. Nuclear testing can be used as The following table shows
the effects of nuclear weapon testing. Types of testing Effect Atmospheric They can happen close to
the ground and in high altitude. If they are close to the surface dirt is
drawn into the mushroom cloud, gets irradiated and then with the help of wind, rain,
floods of air nuclear fallout pollute the atmosphere and the earth. If
they are in a higher level then an aural display takes place. The
destructive effect is immense. It happens when devices detonate on big and
hard constructions such as towers, balloons, barges. They can also be dropped from
airplanes or fired from rockets. Underwater Underwater tests
contaminate water. Water moves quickly and easily penetrates into other
substances. Flowing
radioactive water in its turn contaminates ships, coastlines. The
destructive effect is immense. Nuclear devices are attached to a ship or a
barge. They detonate underwater. Underground Explosions take place
underground. The can be conducted at varying depths. The
destructive effect is less than in atmospheric or underwater testing.
Nevertheless, the surface can get irradiated too. Moreover, they can cause seismic
activity. Source: designed by the authors. Data from [14], [15] The following
photos show how the participants of the CIF – 2008 are explaining to
the participants of the CIF – 2009 how the fuel cycle works. The steps of the fuel cycle
are á
uranium mining (surface or underground) á
milling (extraction from its ore) á
conversion (additional processing) á
uranium enrichment (the first moment at which
uranium takes on the fissile properties needed for use in a nuclear bomb) á
fuel fabrication (fuel rods are
loaded
into fuel channels in the reactor core) á
fuel management (loading and irradiation in the
reactor) á
unloading and cooling (placing the spent but still
radioactive fuel in a water storage pool) á
reprocessing (90 % of the uranium and plutonium in
the spent-fuel solution can be recovered). á
waste packaging and waste disposal (all conditioned
nuclear wastes are to be deposited in mined
cavities deep underground). Highly enriched uranium is
used for weapon production. But as the process of the nuclear weapon
elimination started another problem appeared: What should we do with the
stockpiles of highly enriched uranium meant for weapon production? Sergei Tutrumov, a
specialist in Novouralsk Ural Electrochemical Integrated Plant, in a
television program devoted to the 10th anniversary of the Russian
– American project ÇВОУ в НОУÈ (this Russian
abbreviation means Òhighly enriched uranium into low enriched uraniumÓ
– HEU into LEU) said ÒFor years we have been making nuclear warheads,
and at last mankind understands that we must get rid of this lethal weapons.
By the moment of the beginning of our program there had been 2 hundred tons
of highly enriched uranium in the USA and Russia. To produce only a kilo of it, great funds, a lot of
efforts and energy are needed. But it is quite enough to have a little
amount of highly enriched uranium so that to threaten any other country.
Having stockpiles of highly enriched uranium is a great temptation for
terrorist organizations. That is why we are ready to convert highly enriched
uranium into low enriched uranium so that it could be used for power
stations and be useful for peopleÕ[12] The process
of converting highly enriched uranium into low enriched uranium subsequently
leads to lessening of the explosive material needed for nuclear weapons.
Though the progressive world community understands the threat of nuclear
weapons and the question of nonproliferation is being discussed and
different measures are being undertaken to lessen the nuclear stockpiles, it
is not clear whether the world is going to get rid of them in the
future. The Defense
Department, for example, have discussed Òthe possibility that federal troops
might be ordered to patrol U.S. streets following a nuclear, chemical or
biological attackÉ active-duty
federal troops might be needed to lead an orderly evacuation
following the detonation of a nuclear bombÓ. [13] Though the main question discussed in the
article concerns the relation and the role of state and federal troops it
also shows that the possibility to use a nuclear bomb by terrorists is still
real. And while this threat stays countries will have nuclear weapons for
defense aims but they will have to have them modernized and upgraded. Conclusion. Military technologies seem to have no limits in their development. The
stone walls of Jericho
Source: from the authorsÕ English
teacherÕs archive (2008)
In 1963 the two
superpowers signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, which banned aboveground
nuclear weapons testing.
A period of dŽtente wasnÕt very long. In the 1970s it was followed by renewed
hostility. The Cold War intensified in 1983 with Ronald Reagan's "evil empire"
speech, the Soviet shooting down of a Korean Airline passenger jet, and
Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or "Star Wars".
Samantha Smith and her parents visited the Soviet Union as Yuri Andropov's
guests in July 1983. The letter, the visit, and the subsequent publicity, all
these things helped to humanize both the Americans and the Soviets. Though
Samantha was sometimes criticized for being naive and a pawn of Soviet
propaganda, her experiences offered hope to many people that peace might be
possible and that both nations that had been divided by the Òiron curtainÓ for
decades could relate on calmer terms. 
The Cold War began
to break down in the late 1980s during the administration of Soviet leader
Mikhail S. Gorbachev. It came to an end when in late 1991 the Soviet Union
collapsed and 15 newly independent nations were born.
Frisch at the University of Birmingham in England find that fast-neutron
fission of uranium-235 could possibly create an atomic bomb.
Objective 2
Source: designed by the
authors.
And this is how
the new Topol – M missile looks like. The former Minister of Defense
of Russia Mr. Ivanov said ÒThese systems will form the basis of our
strategic missile troops in the future. The first regiment is now being put
on combat dutyÓ. [9, p.8] On the one hand, it is good that technologies are developing, new
sophisticated equipment needs clever specialists and it means that mankindÕs
intellectual potential is always in progress. On the other hand, it is sad
that this intellectual potential is used for designing terrified weapons
that can bring death to the whole world.
Source:
http://www.gazeta.sp.6ra/69416-0/ 30.12.2008
Objective 3.
ÒThe only war you really win,Ó said General Hoyt Vandenberg, Òis the
war that never starts.Ó [8] These
genius words mean that countries need weapons only for defense and even
in case of a military threat
diplomacy must be the first thing to act. But reality shows that defense and
threat are going alongside.
On the 25th of April 1945 the symbolic first meeting of U.S.
and Soviet troops took place on the Elbe River near Torgau in eastern Germany. A memorial here still commemorates
their first meeting though great political changes have occurred since that
time.
What is a war? Merriam-WebsterÕs Collegiate Encyclopedia gives the
following definition:
ÒState of conflict, generally armed, between two or more entitles. It
is characterized by intentional violence on the part of large bodies of
individuals organized and trained for that purpose. Wars have been fought in
the name of religion, in self-defense, to acquire territory or resources,
and to further the political aims of the aggressor stateÕs leadership.Ó [17, p.1721] Does the Cold War have these
characteristic features? There were neither battles nor occupation of a
territory. Was it self-defense? Who was the aggressor? Answering these
questions we can definitely say that the Cold War really meant the state of
conflict. Both sides led aggressive politics. They persuaded their political
aims and were getting armed during a very long period of time.
Unfortunately, the warm meeting on the Elbe River was followed by the
growing hostility.
The
first disagreement was about German territory and then it was followed by
the disagreement in the question of the control of atomic energy. The Baruch
plan was rejected by the Soviets. During the years from 1947 to 1945 the
tension was growing and it resulted in the setting of two blocs. The Cold War
became Òuniversalized, institutionalized, and militarizedÓ. [9]
On the 10 of February 2009 we met with Cindy
Boggs who has been working as a monitor in the above mentioned Russian
– American project for several years. Being a real expert she could
answer such questions of ours as: What are your memories of the Cold War?
Can the world exist without nuclear weapons? Can nuclear stockpiles be quite
safe? What is the countriesÕ leadersÕ role in this question? Why do some
countries still want to develop nuclear programs while the others talk about
disarmament?
The following photos show our meeting with
Cindy Boggs.
Source: designed by the
authors
The discussion happened to be very
informative. We agreed that both countries being responsible for the arm
race during the Cold War now must do their best to make the process of
nonproliferation and disarmament quite stable. Earlier these states set an
example of nuclear technology development and urged other countries to it.
Now they must set another example. Though the world history has examples
when some countries (Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Ukraine, and South Africa)
refused from their nuclear weapon programs the policy of such countries as
Iran, India, Pakistan and North Korea can bother the world society.
Which nuclear weapons
does India possess now? Its arsenal consists of intermediate-range ballistic missiles, long range strategic bombers
and cruise missile submarines to deliver these weapons. What does India
want? It aims to become a Nuclear triad country (by the year 2010
approximately). Only 3 countries currently are full triad nuclear powers: USA, Russia, and PeopleÕs Republic
of China. Has it declared officially the size of its nuclear arsenal? No. Estimates predict that
India has 40 - 95 nuclear weapons; moreover it has produced enough weapons-grade
plutonium for up to 110 nuclear weapons. Is not it dangerous for the region?
Definitely it is. The region of South Asia has not been a calm place. The
terrorist attack in Mumbai (November 2008) showed that the Indian police
were less mobile than the terrorist group.
India
signed neither the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty nor the Comprehensive Test
Ban Treaty but it agreed to
the Partial Test Ban
Treaty in October 1963. India is a member of the International Atomic
Energy Agency.
In 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, soon to be
India's first Prime Minister, announced: ÒAs
long as the world is constituted as it is, every country will have to devise
and use the latest devices for its protection. I have no doubt India will
develop her scientific researches and I hope Indian scientists will use the
atomic force for constructive purposes. But if India is threatened, she will
inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal.Ó [19]
Since
that time India has always positioned its nuclear policy as a policy of Òno
– first useÓ. The country really developed scientific researches and
currently has civil and military nuclear programs. But its wish to be a
triad nuclear power leaves place for some doubt. To sustain the position of
a Nuclear triad
country needs quite enough funds. Can the country afford it? In our opinion
this
country is a land of contrasts. It lacks energy. It cannot fight some
dangerous diseases. It cannot properly resist the terrorist attack. But it
developed a nuclear-capable submarine-launched ballistic missile Sagarika, which is
expected to begin sea trials by 2009. Agni V ICBM is expected to
be ready by 2010. [19]
Recently
India and Kazakhstan have signed a nuclear cooperation agreement giving New
Delhi a supply of uranium to fuel the nation's planned expansion of nuclear
power. In this country nuclear energy takes only 3%.
The following photo
shows Indian people gathering woods. 50% of fuel source is dry dung and
firewood.
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What reasons can explain IndianÕs wish to strengthen its position as a nuclear power? They can be:
Though
Pakistan is the nearest neighbor whose historical roots are closely
connected with India their relations cannot be called close and
clear. When Great Britain
lost its power in South Asia the region was divided in accordance with
their religion beliefs. The following conflicts were also mostly caused by
difference in religious views, territorial disagreements and lack of
tolerance. The years of conflicts were followed by the years of peace. The countries were rivals and this
rivalry urged Pakistan to begin its own nuclear program. Soon after the
first Indian nuclear test (1974) PakistanÕs uranium enrichment program was begun. After India's
second nuclear test (1998) Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices. This
period in their relations reminds the race between the USA and the
USSR. Due to the secrecy of
the program in Pakistan the estimated amount of warheads vary from 50 to
120. This secrecy alongside with the existence of very well organized
terrorist groups on the area of Pakistan can be considered to be a real
threat for the world peace. Islamabad has consistently declared that its
nuclear arsenal is in no danger of diversion by terrorists. Though
Islamabad claims that its nuclear arsenal is in no danger of diversion by
terrorists the situation is rather complicated. Harvard University arms
control expert Graham Allison, questioned then-Pakistani President Gen.
Pervez Musharraf, who had luckily escaped being assassinated and claiming
at that that Òeverything is
under 100 percent control; it's not conceivable that something could be
lost.Ó It is quite natural that AllisonÕs words sounded ironically: ÒHow likely is it that your
nuclear weapons are more secure than the president of the country?Ó [19] As
well as India, Pakistan has signed neither the Non-Proliferation
Treaty nor the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. According to the Defense Department report
"Pakistan remains steadfast in its refusal to sign the NPT, stating
that it would do so only after India joined the Treaty. Consequently, not
all of Pakistan's nuclear facilities are under IAEA safeguards.Ó
[21] Musharraf said: ÒPakistan
did not want a conflict with India but if it came to war between the
nuclear-armed rivals, he Òwill respond with full might." [21] Common sense has nothing to do
with these claims. Religious and historical rivalry wins. The following table
shows how the relations between India and Pakistan developed and how the
antagonism led to the arm race.
Source: Designed by the authors.
Data from [20], [21], [22],[24] Conclusion From the above table
we can see that the war between India and Pakistan took place at the time
when the Cold War did. These wars have some similarities as well as
differences. First of all it was also a competition. The success of one
country urged the other to new steps. In case with the Cold War we see
that the superpowers fought for the political influence in the world. It
led to the arm race but then to the end of the war and at last to mutual
understanding. In South Asia the reasons for the conflict were territorial
and religious. They also led to the arm race which intensified
dramatically in the 1990s. The fact that the longest range Pakistan
Ghauri missile was named after a 12th Century Muslim warrior who had
conquered part of India is a vivid example of the countryÕs intentions. In
both cases the countries had some agreements and for some reasons broke
them. Nowadays when some countries reject having nuclear weapons, the
others eliminate their number, India and Pakistan oppose not only each
other but the whole international community and are considered to be a
possible threat for the world peace. Bibliography 1.S. Sheldon, Windmills
of the Gods, New York: Grand Central publishing, 2005 2. ÒCold
WarÓ Merriam-WebsterÕs collegiate Encyclopedia, Incorporated
Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 2000. 3. ÒManhattan
ProjectÓ.
Merriam-WebsterÕs collegiate Encyclopedia, Incorporated
Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 2000. 4. Ray Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles,
http://artefact.lib.ru/library/index.shtml 5. ÒCuban
missile crisisÓ, Merriam-WebsterÕs collegiate Encyclopedia,
Incorporated Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 2000. 6. ÒStrategic
Defense Initiative (SDI)Ó, Merriam-WebsterÕs collegiate Encyclopedia,
Incorporated Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 2000 8. 7.ÓNuclear
WeaponsÓ Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009. 8..ÓInternational
relationsÓ Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009 9. ÒRussia
upgrades nuclear missilesÓ, Periscope
magazine #9, Volgograd, 2009 10.
Takesi Ito, Hiroshima Accuses,
Moscow, 1984 11.
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Tibbets, 10.10.2008 12.
ÇВОУ в НОУÈ, Novouralsk Television Company,
2003 13. ÒNorth Korean Leader Pledges Support
For DenuclearizationÓ,gsn.@nti.org/nw_1-
23-2009, 25.01.2009 14. ÒNuclear TestingÓ www.wikipedia.org 30.11.2008 15. ÒTypes of Nuclear
WeaponsÓ www.wikipedia.org 30.11.2008 17.
ÒWarÓ,
Merriam-WebsterÕs collegiate Encyclopedia, Incorporated Springfield,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., 2000 18.ÓIndia and Weapons of Mass DestructionÓ,
www.wikipedia.org, 11.02.2009 19. ÒCritics Question Army Readiness forÉÓ, gsn.@nti.org/nw_1-
16-2009, 25.01.2009 20. ÒIndia and
Pakistan -- On the Nuclear ThresholdÓ
//www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB6/index.htm, 10.02.2009 21. ÒPakistan Nuclear
WeaponsÓ, http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/index.html, 10.02.2009 22. ÒIndia Pakistan TimelineÓ, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm 10 23. ÒThe U-2 IncidentÓ, www.coldwar.org, 24. ÒIndia and Pakistan: New Missiles Increase the Risk of Nuclear WarÓ http://www.wisconsinproject.org/countries/india/india-pak-missile-war.html, 15.02.2009
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