CRITICAL ISSUES FORUM 2008-2009

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nuclear Disarmament: Challenges, Opportunities, and Next Steps

 

 

BENCHMARK I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                         

                                       Student:: Antonina Shaymaer

Grade 10

                                                Teacher: Irena Artemova

The School for Cosmonautics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Zheleznogorsk

 Krasnoyarsky Krai

 Russia

2009

 

Table of Contents

OBJECTIVE 1                                                                                               Page

History and Development of Nuclear Weapons                              2              

Types of Nuclear Weapons, How They Work                                 4

Nuclear Powers                                                                                   6

Current Numbers                                                                               7

Nuclear Weapons Locations                                                              7

OBJECTIVE 2

Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Nuclear Weapons                                      13

Military Fuel Cycle                                                                            14

Hot Industries, Jobs                                                                           14

  Nuclear Weapons Testing                                                                16

Total Nuclear Tests by Location                                                       16

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Nuclear Weapons Effects                       17

OBJECTIVE 3

Motivations on Developing Nuclear Weapons

“Old, New, Potential Nuclear States”                                               18

Reasons for Not Having Nuclear Weapons                                      21

Reasons to Fear the Further Spread of Nuclear Weapons             22

BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                                              23

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OBJECTIVE 1                              

I’d like to start my work with the words of Indian author Arundhati Roy, "The nuclear bomb is the most anti-democratic, anti-national, anti-human, outright evil thing that man has ever made. … This world of ours is 4,600,000,000 years old. It could end in an afternoon."

I believe that everyone understands that a nuclear bomb is an extra-weapon and no one can be safe until this weapon exists. All the means of defense are useless.

History and Development of Nuclear Weapons

        They say that an epoch of nuclear weapon development started during the Cold War. It is a difficult question about the start of the Cold War cause some scientists claim that it started just after the October Revolution in 1917, some other scientists say that it started just after the World War II. But it is a known fact that in 1938 German physicist Otto Hahn discovered how to split the uranium atom and one more “headache” for the mankind appeared. It is an interesting fact that the scientists knew about the atom's basic structure as early as the late 1800s. But only six years passed between the discovery of fission in 1939.

Many scientists feared that the Nazis might have a try to use such a progress to continue their attack on the nations of Europe. Hungarian scientist Leo Szilard shared this fear because the nuclear energy released during fission could be used to produce bombs of global destruction. So Szilard persuaded

 

 Albert Einstein http://images.google.ru/

German-born physicist Albert Einstein wrote a letter to President Roosevelt describing the German discovery and that it was necessary to start research on this subject. And as the result FDR appointed the Briggs Committee in October of 1939 to investigate nuclear fission.

But more attention to the development of NW was paid in Autumn of 1941 after news that the Nazis already had begun their tests. The American government made everything possible to discover the secrets of atomic energy.

In 1942 the War Department's Army Corps of Engineers made an effort to develop an atomic bomb. The United States, Canada and Great Britain worked together. This top-secret project was called the Manhattan project and it united a complex of relationship between science, industry, the government, and the army. New Mexico became the central site in the effort to produce an atomic weapon. Robert Oppenheimer headed that project.

Robert Oppenheimer

 www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Oppenheimer.shtml

In late 1942, Italian Nobel laureate Enrico Fermi and his associates demonstrated the first self-sustaining chain reaction in a laboratory built under a squash court at the University of Chicago. The Manhattan Project then set up facilities for nuclear production and research -- which quickly saw results. The first true plutonium production reactor began operation in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, in November 1943.                                                       Enrico Fermi http://images.google.ru/

 

And in July of 1945 at the Potsdam Conference in Germany Truman announced about the successful test of an atomic bomb in the New Mexico desert at the Trinity test site near Alamogordo. Before the meeting of the allies, American and British officials failed to say any information to Soviet leader Josef Stalin regarding their try to build a new weapon. Truman and Churchill hoped their military secret would provide them with a post-war diplomatic advantage against Stalin. So a military conflict between the two superpowers started.

With the prospect of an invasion of the Japanese mainland, after the shock of Pearl Harbour and an estimated 1 million American casualties, President Henry S. Truman decided to punish the Japanese and on August 6th, 1945 an atomic bomb named Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima. Truman ordered to use the second atomic weapon, Fat Man and on August 9th  a bomb Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki.About the details of the planes which carried the bombs and what bombs there were I’ll  tell in my work further.

 

         The Soviet Union were interested in nuclear physics in the early 1930s  and started its development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons also called "hydrogen bombs."

 “…The Soviet project was led by Igor Kurchatov at a secret site known as Arzamas-16. Early efforts were greatly aided by spies inside the Manhattan Project, most notably by Klaus Fuchs.”[1]

The weapons program began in 1943 during World War II. The first Soviet nuclear reactor went critical in 1946 at the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow.  Graphite moderated plutonium production reactors provided the fissile material for the first Soviet atomic bombs.

The Soviet Union started to construct a near copy of the Fat Man bomb, using the detailed design descriptions provided by Fuchs. “…The bomb was named Joe-1 by the West and it was detonated at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan on August 29, 1949. Its estimated yield was about 22 kilotons…” [1]

Igor Kurchatov http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html

Then Andrei Sakharov had an idea to design the "Layer Cake" and on August 12, 1953, the Soviet Union tested its first fusion-based device on a tower in central Siberia. The bomb had a yield of 400 kilotons. Though not nearly as powerful as the American bomb tested nine months earlier, it  was a usable weapon, small enough to be dropped from an airplane.

 

 

“…Britain was the first to investigate the development of nuclear weapons. Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls in Febuary 1940, and the MAUD Committee showed the feasibility of fission weapons. British scientists, known as "the British Mission," later made important contributions to the Manhattan Project…” [2]

The Cold War began and Great Britain had a feeling that it should have an independent nuclear force. In January 1947, Great Britain decided to develop a nuclear weapon.

Britain's first nuclear reactor was constructed on July 3, 1948. Sites for plutonium production and highly enriched uranium were constructed too.

On October 3, 1952, Britain detonated its first atomic device, code-named "Hurricane” on the Monte Bello Islands, off the west coast of Australia. It had an explosive yield of about 25 kilotons.

In 1954, Churchill decided that Britain should design a hydrogen bomb. Later it was detonated on November 8, 1957, over Christmas Island in the Pacific. The test had a yield of 1.8 megatons.

According to the Atomic Energy Act in 1958, cooperation between U.S. and British nuclear programs continued and after the 1957-'58 test series, the United Kingdom conducted its own independent nuclear tests.

France Joins the Club

After the end of World War II, France started a nuclear-weapons program.  The first French nuclear test, "Gerboise Bleue," (Blue Gerbil) was detonated on February 13, 1960 at Reggane in Algeria atop a 345 foot tower. This device used plutonium and had a notably high yield of 60-70 kilotons. No other nuclear power has ever detonated such a powerful device as its first test. [3]  

After testing in Algeria at Reggane and In Ecker continued until 1966, France's testing program then moved to the Mururoa and Fangataufa Atolls in the South Pacific.

Their first thermonuclear weapon was tested above Fangataufa Atoll in the South Pacific on August 24, 1968. France went on atmospheric testing there until 1974. Now France has joined the other major nuclear powers in ratifying the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and the Non-Proliferation Treaty.

“… In 1951, China signed a secret agreement with Moscow through which China provided uranium ores in exchange for Soviet assistance in nuclear technology. China began developing nuclear weapons in the late 1950s with Soviet assistance…” [4]

In the end of 1950s China- Soviet relations cooled, the Soviet Union stopped plans and data for an atomic bomb but in spite of it China committed itself to continue nuclear-weapons development.

China succeeded in developing nuclear weapons in the 1960s. The first Chinese nuclear test was conducted at Lop Nur on October 16, 1964. It was a tower shot involving a fission device with a yield of 25 kilotons. Uranium 235 was used as the nuclear fuel. In less than 32 months, China detonated its first hydrogen bomb on June 14, 1967.  In 1996, China signed the CTBT.

 

It is useless to speak about nuclear weapons development without understanding what they are like and how they work. Many of my classmates believe that NW is very dangerous and it is something big like a bomb. My thoughts were alike. But now I know that NWs are different and they work differently.

Types of Nuclear Weapons, How They Work

We all perfectly know the term “nuclear powers” but the first thing that comes into mind when we hear it is nuclear weapon

At this site http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/ I read the following definition for the NW:

“… Nuclear weapon - is a  weapon of mass destruction of the explosive action, based on use of  intranuclear energy caused by chain reactions of division of heavy nucleus of some uranium and plutonium isotopes  or at thermonuclear reactions  of easy nucleus synthesis -  of hydrogen isotopes (heavy hydrogen  and tritium) in heavier, for example  of helium isotopes nucleus.”

“… Nuclear energy – is the energy in a nuclear reaction, such a fission or fusion…” [5]

 

            There are two main types of nuclear weapons and they are classified due to their mechanism of operation: fission bombs, which break apart heavy atomic nuclei to release energy, and fusion bombs, which fuse light nuclei. Fusion bombs are powerful. Within these nuclear weapon categories, there are variants: for example, cobalt bombs are surrounded by a layer of cobalt that causes much more intense radioactive fallout, and fission-boosted weapons are nuclear weapons that, despite being based on fission, exploit fusion reactions to boost their yield. Neutron bombs, or enhanced radiation weapons, are fusion weapons designed to emit intense neutron radiation, killing all life within a certain area but leaving buildings unharmed.

The first atomic bombs used two basic methods to create a nuclear explosion.

·      Gun-Type Fission Weapon

"Little Boy," the bomb that destroyed Hiroshima, used a so-called gun-barrel method. A small explosion drove one piece of uranium into another with ferocious impact in a device similar to an artillery barrel -- creating the chain reaction.

 

·               Implosion-Type Fission Weapon

 "Fat Man," the bomb dropped on Nagasaki, was an implosion device -- a mass of plutonium-239 surrounded by a chemical explosive. The weapon's fuse made sure all the conventional, chemical explosive was detonated at the same time. That explosion compressed the plutonium, setting off the chain reaction.

Picture Source: Bombs: http://www.cnn.com/

 

 

 

 

This table shows the Comparison of Gun-Type to Implosion-Type Improvised Nuclear Device

 

Gun-Type Uranium Bomb

Plutonium-Implosion Bomb

Size

~10 feet long/ 2.5 feet in diameter

~5 feet in diameter

Weight

~8.000 pounds

~10.000 pounds

Amount of fissile material

~50 kg (for weapons-grade HEU)

~5-10kg (for weapon-grade Pu)

Yield

~12-15 kilotons

~20 kilotons

[6]

·      Thermonuclear Weapons

Hydrogen bombs require an implosion-type atomic blast to create the heat and pressure needed to fuse the nuclei of two hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and tritium. For such a fusion reaction to succeed, the fission explosion of the atomic bomb must generate temperatures equal to -- or greater than -- those found at the sun's core. The destructive force of nuclear weapons is not limited to their enormous explosions.

Picture Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon

The basics of the Teller–Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.

·      Boosted Fission Weapons

   A Boosted Fission Weapon uses nuclear fusion to increase the explosion power of a fission weapon. In these weapons a few grams of a deuterium/tritium gas mixture are included in the center of the fissile core. When the fissile material inside the weapon is compressed into a critical mass, the deuterium and tritium undergo nuclear fusion. This produces additional explosive energy, releases more neutrons. These neutrons cause more of the fissile material in the weapon to fission before it is dispersed by the explosion.

“…By accelerating the fission process a boosted fission bomb increase the yield 100% (an unboosted 20 kt bomb can thus become a 40 kt bomb). The actual amount of energy released by the fusion reaction is negligible, about 1% of the bomb's yield, making boosted bomb tests difficult to distinguish from pure fission tests (detecting traces of tritium is about the only way)….”

[7]

Picture Source: Swan Boosted Fission.gif http://images.google.ru

 

·      Fission-fusion-fission weapons

Cobalt Bombs

 

A "salted" nuclear weapon is a kind of fission-fusion-fission weapons, but instead of a fissionable cover around the secondary stage fusion fuel, a non-fissionable blanket of a specially chosen salting isotope is used (cobalt-59 in the case of the cobalt bomb). This blanket captures the escaping fusion neutrons to breed a radioactive isotope that maximizes the fallout hazard from the weapon rather than generating additional explosive force (and dangerous fission fallout) from fast fission of U-238.

Picture Source: Cobalt Bombs http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.html#nfaq1.1

 

Nuclear Powers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[8]

 

This table shows how many Strategic and Non-strategic Warheads there existed from 1945 to 1995

STATES

1945

1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

UNITED STATES

6

3,057

31,265

26,675

22,941

14,766

SOVIET UNION

0

200

6,129

19,443

39,197

27,000

BRITAIN

 

0

10

310

350

300

300

FRANCE

0

0

32

188

360

485

CHINA

0

0

5

185

425

425

 

[9]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Current Numbers

 

States

First Test

Most Recent Test

Total Number of Testes

Signed the NTBT

Current

Warheads active\ total

United States

1945("Trinity")

1992

1,030

Yes

4,075 / 5,535

Great Britain

1952 ("Hurricane")

1991

45

Yes

>200

France

1960("Gerboise Bleue")

1996

210

Yes

 

 

<350

Pakistan

1998("Chagai-I")

1998

6

No

~60

India

1974("Smiling Buddha")

1998

5

No

 

100-140

 

Russia

1949("RDS-1")

1990

715

Yes

5,200 / 8,800

China

1964("596")

1996

45

Yes

160-400

 

[10]

            The role of nuclear weapons today is different than it was during the Cold War. In the post-Cold War world, I wish to believe that Russia is not the enemy any longer and nuclear weapons can be used to achieve only strategic goals.

Today’s threats are regional powers armed with modern weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and long-range delivery systems. They may operate from heavily fortified underground locations, electromagnetic pulse weapons (EMP), an effective deterrent that adversaries may be able to have.

 

 

 

NUCLEAR WEAPONS LOCATIONS

Nowadays it not very difficult to detect the locations of nuclear weapons because many modern detectors have been invented. Nuclear warhead stockpiles in Russia are located in the following cities and towns:

Borisoglebsk Bulyzhino Chebsara Dodonovo Golovchino Karabash Khabarovsk

Komsomolsk-na-Amur Krasnoarmeyskoye Malaya Sazanka Mozhaysk Nizhnaya Tura (north) Nizhnaya Tura (south) Yuryuzan Zalari Zhukovka

[11]

Strategic Nuclear Weapons: 5,000 (active)

Non-strategic (tactical) Nuclear Weapons: ~3,400 (active)

Total Nuclear Weapons: ~8,400 (active)

Total Reserve Forces (stockpiled and not mated to delivery vehicles): ~11,000+

(the exact number is unknown, although most of these weapons are non-strategic)

Russia's nuclear stockpile is in scores of weapons labs, fuel depots and research institutes.

The major installations of the Russian nuclear weapons complex are the ten 'closed nuclear cities' managed by the Russian Federation Ministry for Atomic Energy (Minatom). These facilities design, maintain and dismantle weapons and produce fissile materials and weapon components. It is estimated that 732,000 people live in the closed cities, and approximately 127,000 are employed in the key nuclear enterprises.

My town - Krasnoyarsk-26(Zheleznogorsk Mining & Siberian Chemical Combine).

Spent fuel reprocessing; plutonium production.

Tons of plutonium produced over facility's lifetime.

Weapons-grade uranium exists

Unsafeguarded.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[12]

In the table below we can see CHINA nuclear weapons locations

 

Strategic Nuclear Weapons: 250    Non-strategic Nuclear Weapons: 120

Total Nuclear Weapons: 400*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 [13]

[14] Map Source: China's Nuclear Facilities and Organization www.nti.org/db/china/nukemap.gif

Identified nuclear warhead stockpiles in the USA are located both in North America and Europe (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Turkey, Britain) in the following cities and towns:

[15]

Strategic Nuclear Weapons: 8,855 (7,000 active, 1,855 inactive)

Non-strategic (tactical) Nuclear Weapons: 1,600 (800 active, 800 inactive)

 Total Nuclear Weapons: 10,455*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 [16] [17] [18]

 

 

France

Strategic Nuclear Weapons: 350

Non-strategic Nuclear Weapons: 0

Total Nuclear Weapons: 350

[19]

 

 

 

 

The Main Nuclear Sites in France

[20]

 

The United Kingdom

Strategic Nuclear Weapons: 180

Non-strategic Nuclear Weapons: 5

Total Nuclear Weapons:185

[21]                                                                                                                                  [22]

       Nuclear stockpiles around the world

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Map Source:

War News Updates <www.warnewsupdates.blogspot.com>

 

 

There also states which are suspected to have Nuclear Weapons

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“…Israel refuses to confirm or deny the widespread belief that it has the bomb, but it is believed to have nuclear weapons stockpile range from 70 to 400 warheads. The actual number is probably closer to the lower estimate…”

[23]

Iran launched a nuclear program in the 1970s but slowed it down after the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Iran is interested in nuclear technology and is suspected to be developing weapons using its nuclear power program.

North Korea The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) thinks that North Korea may have six chemical weapons. “…American intelligence reports that Pyongyang already has one or two crude nuclear bombs. On October 9, North Korea declared that it had exploded a nuclear weapons device successfully, making it the eighth nation to possess nuclear weapon technology.

The United States detected seismic activity but scientists question whether it was indeed a small nuclear device or if it was a larger-scale explosion of non-nuclear weaponry that mimics a nuclear explosion. Russia is “100% certain” a nuclear test had occurred. By the way North Korea withdrew from the NPT in January 10, 2003…”[24]

The Syrian nuclear program was a surprise. Syria began a military nuclear program in 1979 and had not given the IAEA a full information on all the nuclear activities. “… Syria had claimed that it was interested in nuclear research for medical rather than military purposes, but Israel and the United States have opposed sales of a reactor to Syria on the grounds that it would serve as an important step toward the building of a nuclear weapon…”

The United States continue to watch for any signs of nuclear weapons activity or foreign assistance that could facilitate a Syrian nuclear weapons capability. [25]

There are also Nuclear Capable States such as

 

Algeria          Argentina      Australia       Austria   Bangladesh               Belgium   Brazil            Bulgaria  Canada    Chile  Colombia      Egypt  Finland          Germany       Hungary Indonesia      Italy    Japan   Mexico         Netherlands  Norway Peru  Poland          Romania            Republic of Korea    Slovakia   South Africa      Spain Sweden          Switzerland                  Turkey          Ukraine         Viet Nam       Zaire

[26]

 

 

 

 

 

And those Who

Want the Bomb

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[27]

Libya

While Libya is possibly unable to develop a bomb, it has the money and apparently the desire to buy nuclear technology from the former Soviet Union. Only a strict embargo is stopping it.

Iraq had its nuclear program dismantled under United Nations support after its defeat in the 1991 Gulf War.

Iran started a nuclear program in the 1970s but slowed it after the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Iran is developing weapons.

North Korea put its atomic program on hold in 1994 but recently threatened to resume it if Washington did not deliver promised nuclear power plants. “…Under a landmark 1994 accord, the U.S. pledged to replace Pyongyang's graphite reactors, which are capable of producing weapons-grade material, with the safer light-water plants…” [28]

Cartoon drawn by Antonina Shaymaer from Source: www.payvand.com/.../ sep/Iran-Nukes-Cartoon1.jpg

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) believes that North Korea may have six chemical weapons. American intelligence reports that Pyongyang already has one or two crude nuclear bombs. On October 9, North Korea declared that it had exploded a nuclear weapons device successfully, making it the eighth nation to possess nuclear weapon technology.

“…The United States detected seismic activity but scientists question whether it was indeed a small nuclear device or if it was a larger-scale explosion of non-nuclear weaponry that mimics a nuclear explosion. Russia is “100% certain” a nuclear test had occurred. By the way North Korea withdrew from the NPT in January 10, 2003…”[29]

 

I want to compare a nuclear weapon program with “a big delicious cake” and every country wants to bite a bit of it, but not everyone shows that “the cake” is really delicious and   it has been enjoying it for a long time already.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OBJECTIVE 2

Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Nuclear Weapons

 

Nuclear weapon production is a very difficult technological process in countries around the world.

           The nuclear fuel cycle is a set of steps to produce fuel for nuclear power reactors, which in turn generate electricity. The production of nuclear fuel can be used both for peaceful and military purposes and this allows for the creation of civilian nuclear power and the production of weapons-grade material for nuclear weapons.

“…The “back end” of the fuel cycle refers to the storage, reprocessing and disposal of the uranium after its use in the reactor. After its use in nuclear power reactors, the uranium, which includes 1% plutonium as a by-product, is taken out of the reactor, stored, and possibly reprocessed to separate the fuel from nuclear waste. During reprocessing, plutonium is separated from the uranium fuel, which is highly radioactive. The extracted plutonium can serve as fissile material for nuclear weapons. Only 8 kilograms of plutonium are necessary for one nuclear weapon…” [30]

“…Mining is the extraction of uranium ore from open pits or underground mines

 Milling is the uranium recovery from the crushed and ground-up ore by leaching

 At a conversion facility, uranium is converted into uranium hexafluoride

 The enrichment takes UF6 to produce uranium-235 of higher concentration

 Reactor fuel is ceramic pellets put in rods which are arranged into a fuel assembly ready for insertion into a reactor core

 Fission of U-235 atoms leads to energy release

 Spent fuel is unloaded into a storage for several months to several years in order to radiation levels decrease

 In a reprocessing facility the used fuel is separated into different components to produce fresh fuel and to reduce amount of waste…”

[31]

Source: Picture:Fuel Cycle http://www.investnuclear.com/_upload/editor_img/file0057.gif

Military Fuel Cycle

             Military programs involve the production of special grades of nuclear material, substantially different to the material used in civil programs.

Nuclear weapons are based on the following nuclear materials:

Plutonium is formed through the irradiation of uranium in a reactor. The uranium-238 isotope absorbs a neutron, leading to the formation of plutonium-239. Longer irradiation times lead to the formation of higher plutonium isotopes, Pu-240, Pu-241 and Pu-242.

Weapons-grade plutonium is produced in dedicated plutonium production reactors, usually natural uranium-fuelled, graphite-moderated, where irradiated fuel can be removed after short irradiation times.

Uranium

Weapons-grade uranium is very highly enriched, to 90% or more U-235. This compares with normal civil enrichment levels of around 35% U-235. High enrichment levels are produced in enrichment plants specially designed and operated for this purpose.

 

 

 

Military fuel cycle typically includes the following stages:

Picture: HEU www.nnsa.doe.gov

 

The nuclear weapons industry has hundred's of thousands of workers qualified in engineering technology or in an appropriate professional field, e.g., physics, computer science, mathematics, hydrology, chemistry, architecture, or geology.

There are some hot industries the specialists of which were required on the 26.11.2008:

Hot Industries, Jobs

                 

Systems Engineer      Engineering-Military Software       Intelligence Analysis

Military Software Engineering      Program/Project Management    Linguist, Translator or Interpreter     Engineering-Aerospace and Aviation     IT Hardware-Unix     Admin/Clerical/Secretarial

                                        

 

 

GENERAL ENGINEER

DUTY: to serve as a General Engineer and technical expert for the Air Force Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) Ground Systems and associated support equipment.  

QUALIFICATIONS: A  Degree: professional engineering or a combination of education and experience--college-level education, training

Past experience is necessary.

SYSTEMS ENGINEER

DUTY: to provide overall leadership and guidance to other team members in the concept, design, and implementation of RF communication systems and associated lower level modules.

QUALIFICATIONS: BSEE or BSCE and 14+ years of Systems engineering

EXPERIENCE: experience with military, space and commercial communications hardware and protocols.* Top Secret Security Clearance Required Preferred Qualifications:* MSEE with emphasis on DSP, Mat lab or C modelling experience is desired.

INFORMATION SYSTEMS SECURITY ENGINEER

DUTY: to analyze and evaluate a multitude of systems to meet specific requirements; to analyze customer requirements and advise on potential solutions with limited supervision; to represent the organization on projects while playing a key role in the guidance of overall customer objectives.  QUALITIES, ABILITIES SKILLS:  to exercise own judgment within loosely defined parameters in a dynamic workplace environment; a high level of motivation and ability to keep current with emerging security technologies; excellent briefing skills. CISSP is required. This position requires an active TS/SCI with Polygraph.

 

OPERATIONS PROGRAM MANAGER

DUTY: responsible for hardware delivery on Space Development programs

QUALITIES, ABILITIES SKILLS: strong leadership, project management, and communication skills. SAP and MRP knowledge is required. with minimum Special

Access Clearance required. This positions requires US Citizenship. Will consider hiring at a band 2 or 3. Position is eligible for Employee Referral Award Program if filled at a Band 3 level. Security Clearance Required.

QUALIFICATIONS: Engineering Degree

EXPERIENCE: a background in Electronics Manufacturing (7 years), experience with product development projects (2 years), and a strong technical foundation are required. Experience with Proposal development, Design Reducibility, and Production Readiness are preferred. [34]

 

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND WEAPONS ANALIST

DUTY: to analyze challenging national security issues, such as foreign weapons development, weapons proliferation, information warfare and emerging technologies, to serve as professional intelligence officers, applying their scientific and technical knowledge to solving complex intelligence problems, and presenting their assessments to senior policymakers.

QUALITIES, ABILITIES SKILLS: initiative, creativity, analytical skills and technical expertise

QUALIFICATIONS: a bachelor's or master's degree in: Aerospace Engineering; Mechanical Engineering; Electrical Engineering; Computer Engineering; Computer Science; Nuclear Engineering; Physics; Mathematics; Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Biological Sciences; Biotechnology and Microbiology; Physical Sciences; or Remote Sensing/GIS, strong written and oral English communications skills.[35]

 

 

WEAPONS OF MASS DISTRUCTION DETECTION ENGINEER
OCCUPATION: Energy/Nuclear Engineering; Environmental and Geological Engineering

EXPERIENCE: military experience preferred with 5 to 15 years of experience; experience with nuclear detection devices desired; familiarity with relevant CWMD policy and procedures required; military staff experience desired [36]

 

Nuclear weapons are sure to play an important role in national security policy to deter potential aggressors.

               Nuclear weapons production is only available to the most technologically, economic advanced nations with developed scientific and industrial resources, with specialists in nuclear physics, engineering, metallurgy, machining and etc. The staff has to be fed, housed. Besides the nation has to be internationally recognized to produce nuclear weapons legally without any challenges.

Nowadays many countries understand that nuclear weapons are more expensive and trouble than they are worth. They are so destructive that they can't actually use them. They require impossibly tight security to keep them from falling into the hands of dissidents, separatists and terrorists. In the early 1990s, several countries renounced their nuclear weapons and gladly reverted to lesser power status.

                                Nuclear Weapons Testing

 

 

 

 

 


       “… The immediate effects of a nuclear detonation include blast, heat, fire and radiation, electromagnetic pulse. Delayed effects include radioactive fallout and environmental effects. Immense light and thermal heat cause a phenomenon called a firestorm. Firestorms deplete oxygen from the environment and create hurricane-like winds, which attract debris and feed the storm itself, causing super-infernos. No living being can survive a firestorm. Another effect of nuclear weaponry is radiation, which results from a nuclear explosion. Radioactive elements can hang around for millennia, putting future generations at risk of developing cancer and genetic mutations…”

So the effects of nuclear weapons testing are as  following:

·      damage to the immune system

·      radioactive contamination of air, soil and water

·      individual and general isolation and other psychological effects such as "nuclear weapon survivors syndrome" [37]

Total Nuclear Tests by Location

 

This map shows how many and where nuclear tests have been conducted around the world.

[38]

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Nuclear Weapons Effects

           Hiroshima became the target of the first weapon “Little Boy” at 08.15 on 6 August 1945.

It was carried by a B-29 Superfortress called Enola Gay, and exploded about 550 metres over the city producing the equivalent of 15 kilotons of energy. Eyewitnesses reported seeing a parachute falling followed by a blast of intense heat. Between 130, 000 and 200, 000 people died, were injured, or disappeared.

On the morning of August 9, 1945, the U.S. B-29 Superfortress Bockscar, flown by the crew of 393rd Squadron commander Major Charles W. Sweeney, carried the nuclear bomb code-named "Fat Man", with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target.

 

The injuries and destruction from the two bombs resulted from three factors: the intense blast, similar to that from conventional weapons but on a much larger scale; thermal radiation causing burns and producing fires; and nuclear radiation, which caused death and injury from damaged tissues. Each of the three effects was found on victims within 1.6 km from the epicentre, but the first two factors caused most deaths. [39]

Hiroshima before  bombing                                         Hiroshima after bombing

 [40]

     The effects of both kinds of bombs depended essentially upon the energy released at the moment of the explosion, causing immediate fires, destructive blast pressures, and extreme local radiation exposures. Since the bombs were detonated at a height of some 600 metres above the ground, very little of the fission products were deposited on the ground beneath. Some deposition occurred however in areas near to each city, owing to local rainfall occurring soon after the explosions. This happened at positions a few kilometres to the east of Nagasaki, and in areas to the west and north-west of Hiroshima. Fission products were carried high into the upper atmosphere by the heat generated in the explosion itself.  The majority would have decayed by the time they landed around the globe.        

“…In Hiroshima, of a resident civilian population of 250 000 died 45 000 on the first day and a further 19 000 during four months. In Nagasaki, out of a population of 174 000, 22 000 died on the first day and another 17 000 within four months…” [41]

 I want to say that both the Americans and the Japanese from these bombings learned very different lessons. The Americans learnt that nuclear weapons can win wars, and the people of Japan (I mean those who survived from the bombings) learned that mankind and NWM cannot exist together. They learned that these weapons must be liquidated  before they liquidate them.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Objective 3      Motivations on Developing Nuclear Weapons

“Old, New, Potential Nuclear States”

The historians say that the Cold War began after World War II.* The main enemies were the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold war got its name because both countries were afraid of fighting each other directly. In such a war, nuclear weapons might destroy everything and that is why both the countries fought each other indirectly. They supported conflicts in different parts of the world. They also used words as weapons. They threatened and criticised each other strongly and publicly trying to make each other look foolish.

The United States and the Soviet Union were the only two superpowers following the Second World War. The fact that, by the 1950s, each possessed nuclear weapons and the means of delivering such weapons on their enemies, added a dangerous aspect to the Cold War. The Cold War world was separated into three groups. The United States led the West. This group included countries with democratic political systems. The Soviet Union led the East. This group included countries with communist political systems. The non-aligned group included countries that did not want to be tied to either the West or the East. [42]

Picture Source: Cold War http://www.ColdWarCompos.jpg

 The motivation on having a nuclear weapon for both the USSR and US was superpower’s survival and for the West to compensate for weaknesses.

During the Cold War, strategic stability was based on the balance of power between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S., and nuclear deterrence was the crucial element of security. Attempts to gain unilateral advantage whipped up the arms race. As a result, each side accumulated tens of thousands of nuclear warheads. Today, in spite of the reductions of strategic arms carried out by Russia and the U.S., deterrence is the foundation of their nuclear policies.[43]

* But the ideological fight between communism and capitalism began in 1917, when the Soviet Union appeared from the Russian Revolution as the world's first communist state. This worsened Russian–American relations.

 

 Pakistan was a late starter in the nuclear race. The main motivation of having nuclear weapons was a strategic imbalance with India and necessity to survive. I can site former prime minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto, who said that Pakistan needs nuclear weapons because “It’s our history. A history of three wars with a larger neighbour. India is five times larger than we are. Their military strength is five times larger … so security issue for Pakistan is an issue of survival.” To sum up, the following motivations Pakistan has:

·      To “neutralize” India’s nuclear weapon superiority

·      Domestic politics

·      Prestige

·      Nationalism

·      Symbol of national honor

Pakistan’s Principle: no-first-use [44]

 India's efforts in nuclear science and technology were established early. The first step was taken by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha in March 1944 when he submitted a proposal to the Sir Dorab Tata Trust (established in honor of Bhabha's own uncle, Sir Dorab Tata) to found a nuclear research institute, over three years before independence and a year before the first nuclear weapon test.

At that time Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru declared: “… We must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war - indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way…”

An interesting incident sheds light on Nehru's and Bhabha's thinking at that time. In 1960 Kenneth Nichols, a former U.S. Army engineer who played significant roles in the Manhattan Project, represented Westinghouse in discussions on power plant construction. In a meeting with Nehru and Bhabha, Nichols relates that Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked:

"Can you develop an atomic bomb?" Bhabha assured him that he could and in reply to Nehru's next question about time, he estimated that he would need about a year to do it. ... He concluded by saying to Bhabha "Well, don't do it until I tell you to."

Picture Source: http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/the.bomb/opposition/

[45]

But judging to the history of India’s nuclear programme it is clear that the initial motivation for the Indian nuclear weapons program was the first nuclear weapons test by China in 1964.

In my opinion some other motivations are the following:

·      Prestige

·      Strategic environment  (from China, Pakistan)

·      Technological imperatives

·      National security

India’s Principle: No-first use of nuclear weapons

“… Iran’s motivations include a need to achieve a technological prestige, assert national pride, independence, secure and show the dominance in the region. Iran is sure that owing nuclear weapons is the best way to ensure the survival of the Islamic regime – a protection from both internal and outside threats and oppositions…” [46]

 “…Moreover Iran is a proud country that sits between nuclear Pakistan and India to its east, a nuclear Russia to its north and a nuclear Israel to its west. Adjacent Afghanistan and Iraq are occupied by a nuclear America…” [47]

Iran wants to be a Nuclear Power State? Reasons: Washington Institute for Near East Policy MAHMOOD SARIOLGHALAM: “… Iran and Iranians want is recognition, power, assertiveness and a return to the Iranian family—use this word, imperial days. Iranians of all political walks of life, I think from nationalist Islamists to secular people and so on, they do have an imperial mind-set. I think with or without the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran would be seeking as much as power that it can produce at the regional level. Iranian size population, the academic capability in the country, the young population, human resources, historical identity of the country—all of these ingredients produce a situation where there’s an inclination for any political leadership in that country by any political orientation to pursue power relations at the national and at the regional level…” [48]

 

North Korea announced in February 2005 that it has nuclear weapons. It might possess between one and eight nuclear weapons, and it is probably seeking to possess more. As means of force nuclear weapon may be used strategically to support political objectives. North Korean capabilities are probably sufficient for pre-war deterrence of invasion and attempts to decapitate the regime. They may be less credible against small attacks against conventional forces and nuclear capabilities. North Korean capabilities might be sufficient for intra-war deterrence of attacks against population centres but are likely insufficient for attacks against its conventional forces and attrition of its nuclear capabilities. North Korea might find nuclear capabilities attractive for defence of North Korean territory because of the ability to signal resolve, concern, and danger of additional attacks without eliciting retaliation. North Korea appears interested in nuclear capabilities for offence, but may find that such use does not work as well as it hopes. [49]

Pyongyang said that it wanted "to build up a nuclear deterrent force" to cut the number of conventional troops and to divert funds into the economy. With 1.1 million troops, North Korea has the fifth largest army in the world.

“…North Korea wants a nuclear weapon status to be welcomed to the global community to get some economical benefits. Besides North Korea needs a deterrence to protect itself from American attack, and nuclear weapons will do that. North Korea wants to have a nuclear weapon because then it can scale down its conventional weaponry and channel that money into "human resources and economic construction and the people's lives"…” [50]

Iran, Pakistan, India, North Korea want to nuclear states

 

Other countries

“… Great Britain became the third nuclear power when it successfully detonated an atomic device in October 1952 (Hurricane). Great Britain is one of the five nuclear-weapon states (NWS) recognized by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which was ratified by the UK in 1968. Between 1952 to 2006, Britain had built approximately 1,200 nuclear weapons. Britain currently stockpiles 185 nuclear weapons; the peak number of warheads stockpiled was 410 in 1969….”

The motivation for the development of nuclear weapons was to retain an effective and independent deterrent against Soviet aggression which would contribute to the strength of Western defence. Being the only European member of NATO with nuclear weapons, Britain gained political leverage in Anglo-American relations which it had lost following the war.

[51]  

 France was motivated by the will of independence vis-Ã -vis the United States confirmed with France's loosening of ties to NATO, and as an independent deterrent against the USSR. It was also relevant to retain great power status, along side United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War. [52]

China tested its first nuclear weapon in 1964. China was the first Asian nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the USSR. [53]

 

 Nations want to have nuclear weapons

         (sequence of countries becoming nuclear powers: China, then India, and naturally, Pakistan)

 

Reasons for Not Having Nuclear Weapons

 The dropping of the nuclear bombs by the United States on Japanese towns Hiroshima and Nagasaki was so disgusting that Japan decided not to develop a nuclear weapons program, and its constitution forbids the production of nuclear weapons.  Germany did not have a nuclear program at the end of World War II, because after the war they had to renovate the country.  Germany, like Japan, does have a nuclear energy industry, which could be converted to nuclear weapons.  Although they have not made their minds yet whether to develop nuclear weapons, they have the technology, which itself serves as a deterrent.   Switzerland had a nuclear weapons development program, but refused because it needs a great amount of money and due to its decision to sign the non-proliferation treaty.  Both Argentina and Brazil had nuclear weapons programs in the 1970s while both countries were under military dictatorship, but both countries ceased the development programs once civilian rule was returned.   South Africa is the only country to disassemble its nuclear weapons after having had a nuclear program where it developed weapons.  The dismantling of South Africa’s nuclear program was concurrent with the dismantling of the apartheid regime, and the institution of democratic reforms in the country.                                                                         Picture Source: http://edition.cnn.com/                                                                    

“… South Africa is the most extreme case of a country that developed nuclear weapons without a clear strategy for using them. South Africa’s programme underscores several points that led to covert nuclear weapons development**, including:

**On August 14 in 1994, the IAEA confirmed the complete dismantlement of the South African nuclear weapons programme.

Latin America has become one of the most denuclearized regions of the planet. The states in the region don’t see the necessity of acquiring nuclear weapons as a deterrent. Their nuclear programme is peaceful.

Argentina

Pursued weapons programs in the 1980s but a new democratic government decided that a change in policy was needed. By 1990, signed a treaty for a nuclear-weapons-free zone in Latin America.

Kazakhstan

Is a former Soviet republic supports the NPT and has given up its nuclear arms.

Belarus

Possessed numerous nuclear weapons when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. Has accepted the nuclear non-proliferation treaty and rid itself of warheads.

Ukraine

One of the former Soviet republics that has rid itself of warheads.

To sum up there are the following reasons for some countries not to have nuclear weapons:

[55]

Picture Source: Nuclear Club http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/the.bomb/deployment/

 

Reasons to Fear the Further Spread of Nuclear Weapons

[56]

 

In conclusion I’d like to say that this topic helped me to get aware of the significant threat of nuclear weapons to the future of my generation and human race in the world. As long as nuclear weapons exist, no human being is safe. My generation is aware of the consequences nuclear weapons can cause and we shall try to do as much as possible to make the world nuclear weapons free and safe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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