Franklin High School

2008-2009 Critical Issues Forum

Nuclear Disarmament:

Challenges, Opportunities and Next Steps

Participants:

Katie Martinez, Boguslav Mandzyuk,

Larmon Luo, Susan Burtner, Sarah Burtner

Coordinator:

Rene Mendoza

Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. If we continue to develop our technology without wisdom or prudence, our servant may prove to be our executioner.

-Omar Nelson Bradley

Objective 1:

THEN

The world was ushered into the Nuclear Age with the push of a button. On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, releasing an explosive yield equal to 12.5 kilotons of TNT. Three days later, the USA pushed another button, dropping a bomb equivalent to 22 kilotons of TNT on the city of Nagasaki. All together, the two weapons killed over 250,000 people, with thousands more dying years later from radiation^1[1]. The bombs brought a swift end to World War II, but they were the beginning of an ongoing arms race.

The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not developed overnight. They were the result of years of work, experimentation, and above all, fear. The United States entered the nuclear race as a defensive mood, not an offensive one. In October of 1939, German physicist refugees Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard sent a letter to US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, urging him to join the nuclear arms movement as quickly as possible.[2] If he did not create a strong nuclear weapons program in America, then it was highly probable that Germany would create the bomb first, giving Hitler the power of ultimate destruction. In the fall of 1938, German scientists Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, and Fritz Strassman had discovered nuclear fission, a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two nuclei, or fission products. Hahn had published Meitner dramatic calculations from the fission experiment in December of 1938, alerting the world of Germany’s growing danger.[3] Frightened by this possibility, Roosevelt swiftly took the advice of Einstein and Szilard, launching the United States’ undisclosed nuclear weapons effort. The United States, partnered with Great Britain, developed the under the name “The Manhattan Project,” and harnessed a force of over 200,000 workers, as well as thousands of scientists and engineers. By the time its first atomic bomb was tested at Alamogordo, New Mexico, Germany had lost the war and was no longer and imminent threat. However, the same could not be said for Japan, and in the nuclear bombs were dropped into the Pacific, bringing a swift end to the war.[4]

http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0800/media/0801_014802.jpg

Despite the international outcry over the obliteration of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the world had not seen the last of the nuclear arms race. The United States and the USSR, once allied against the spread of fascism, were now in heated competition. This competition came to be known as the Cold War, an ideological struggle between communism (the USSR) and western democracy (the United States). Central to this struggle was the amassing of nuclear weapons in the two countries. In 1949, the Soviet Union shocked the world when it secretly tested a fission bomb on August 29. Now that the USSR was officially a nuclear state, the United States began working on an even more powerful weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb. The H-bomb relied on fusion rather than fission, meaning that the explosion was a result of atomic nuclei combining. Its explosive force would be 1,000 times that of the Nagasaki bomb. However, the Soviets followed closely behind. In the early 1950’s, both the USA and the USSR tested hydrogen bombs, and in 1961, the Soviets tested a “monster bomb,” equivalent to 50 megatons of TNT, and the most destructive bomb the world had ever seen. The rest of the world was not about to let the two countries dominate the arms race entirely, and many countries began developing their own nuclear weapons, though to a much lesser extent. In October 1952, Great Britain tested its first bomb, followed by France in 1960, and China in 1964. These countries marked the beginning of the “nuclear club”, or group of known nuclear weapon states.[5]

The race came to a climax with the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1962, the leader of the USSR, Nikita Khrushchev began deploying nuclear missiles in Cuba, which would rob the USA of its nuclear domination if installed. On October 22, U.S. President Kennedy announced that the USA would blockade Cuba, and search arriving vessels for missiles. Above all, the United States would not attack Cuba, an action that would have likely resulted in nuclear warfare. On October 28, Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the deployed missiles, as long as the USA ended the blockade and agreed not to invade Cuba.[6]

http://johnfenzel.typepad.com/john_fenzels_blog/images/2007/03/19/cuban_missile_crisis_cartoon.gif

Despite the peaceful ending, the potential peril of the Cuban Missile Crisis frightened the United States and the Soviet Union into diplomacy. In 1963, the first major nuclear arms control agreement was born: the Limited Test-Ban Treaty. The primary purpose of the LTBT was to limit the health hazards created by nuclear explosions by forbidding testing in space, in the atmosphere, or underwater. Many countries, however, signed it as a vehicle for non-proliferation. If countries are unable to test nuclear weapons, they are far less capable of building a strong nuclear weapons program. The treaty was considered to be somewhat ineffective, however, because more developed nuclear weapon states still had the ability to test underground. By July 1968, a more effective agreement, the Non-Proliferation treaty, or the NPT treaty was open for signing. The goal of the treaty was to halt the spread of nuclear weapons, but to still allow the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Under the NPT, the five nuclear weapon states of the time (the USA, USSR, United Kingdom, France, and China) agreed not to release their nuclear weapons, or assist any other country in developing them. They also promised to gradually reduce their weapons stockpiles until total nuclear disarmament is achieved. For their part, all non-nuclear weapons states who signed pledged to neither acquire nor create nuclear explosives. Presently, the treaty has been signed by 188 countries, making it the most far-reaching arms control treaty in history.[7]

Now

World Nuclear Weapon Stockpiles 2008

http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/germany/nuke.htm

Although years have passed since the Cold War, the threat of nuclear warfare is far from over. As of 2008, there are about 25,500 nuclear warheads in the world today, with thousands ready to use at a moment’s notice. Russia and the United States still remain at the head of the nuclear weapon states, stockpiling 14,000 and 5,400 weapons, respectively. The nation closest to their numbers is France, with 350 stockpiled weapons. Currently, nine known nuclear weapons states exist: the USA, Russia, France, China, the UK, Pakistan, India and Israel.[8] However, other countries have had them, or have undisclosed nuclear weapons programs. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, for instance, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine all held Soviet weapons. However, they were soon returned to Russia when the three countries signed the NPT treaty as non-nuclear weapons states. South Africa was also a nuclear weapons state at one time, developing and then dismantling several nuclear weapons before signing the NPT in 1991. Several other countries abandoned their nuclear weapons programs as well, including Libya,

Argentina, Brazil, South Korea, and Taiwan.⁸ Iraq also caused concern. After the Gulf War in Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, the International Atomic Energy Agency inspectors (IAEA) discovered that Iraq had experimented with five different ways of enriching uranium. However, by 1991 it had not succeeded in producing a dangerous level of enriched uranium, and this weak program was destroyed by UN weapons instructors shortly after. It should also be noted that at the time, the Iraqis have neither the electrical power nor the foreign assistance to run the plant necessary to create a significant amount of enriched uranium covertly. For now, Iraq is a ways off from becoming a nuclear power.[9] Currently, there are three countries triggering immediate non-proliferation alarm: Iran, North Korea, and Syria.

Despite the assurance of Iranian officials that their pursuit of nuclear power is merely for peaceful purposes, Iran is still considered to be a danger. In 2002, Iran’s nuclear program efforts were made public, causing a nervous US and European Union to find a diplomatic solution. In 2004, Britain, France, and Germany, with US support, promised to help Iran develop its civilian nuclear program, as long as Iran stopped its attempts for uranium enrichment. However, in August 2005, Iran resumed its controversial nuclear work in several facilities, nearly shattering the agreement. Three facilities in particular are causing alarm. In the city of Arak, a heavy-water research reactor is approximately 5 years from completion. As soon as it is up and running, the plant has the capability to produce the amount of plutonium needed to create one bomb per year. Plutonium is not the only material causing concern in Iran. The uranium-conversion facility of Isfahan has been used for enriching uranium to dangerous levels. Enriched uranium has also been found at the facility Natanz as recently as 2003 by IAEA inspectors, a direct violation of the NPT. Regardless of Iran’s claims that the equipment already contained the uranium when they were given by Pakistan, it is still considered a nuclear threat.[10]

North Korea is another country causing international unease. In 1965, it began operating a small nuclear research reactor. The reactor has the ability to produce plutonium, and would be instrumental in creating nuclear weapons. However, in 1994 it agreed to halt its nuclear activities, in exchange for an annual delivery of 500,000 tons of heavy fuel oil and two new nuclear power reactors. These reactors would be much less capable of producing weapons-grade plutonium. Despite this agreement, North Korea did not stop its work, and as of 2002, is suspected of having two complete nuclear weapons. In 2003, it became the first state in history to withdraw from the NPT treaty, and in 2006 it admitted to testing a nuclear fission device. Perhaps the greatest danger of North Korea holding nuclear weapons is the fact that it could transfer nuclear materials to other unstable countries.

Recently, a new country has come to light as a possible nuclear danger zone: Syria. In September of 2007, an Israeli force raided Syria, fearing the existence of nuclear warheads. During the raid, the troops discovered what appeared to be an incomplete nuclear reactor. The reactor would not have been ready to produce plutonium for several years, but Israel was anxious to squash any nearby nuclear threat as soon as possible. However, the reactor draws parallels to one created by North Korea, suggesting that Syria may be receiving assistance from this rogue nuclear country. Syria has signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and is allowed to continue to construct its nuclear reactor, as long as its only purpose is to produce electricity.[11] Still, it is considered an up-and-coming nuclear state, and may potentially be dangerous in the future.

Works Cited

Barnaby, Frank. How to Build a Nuclear Bomb. New York, New York: Nation Books, 2004.

Davis, Mary. The Nuclear Age: Time Frame 1950-1990. Richmond, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1990. .

Kimball, Daryl. "Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance." Arms Control Association. Oct 2007. Arms Control Association. 10 Feb 2009 http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat.

Kristensen, Hans. "Status of World Nuclear Forces." Federation of American Scientists. 2008. Federation of American Scientists. 10 Feb 2009 http://www.fas.org/about/index.html.

Mazzetti, Mark and David Sanger. “Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts Say.”

The New York Times 14 October 2007 1-2 16 Feb 2009.

Njølstad, Olav. "The Development and Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons." NobelPrize.org. 2009. Nobel Foundation. 10 Feb 2009 http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/peace/nuclear_weapons/readmore.html.

O'Neill, Terry. Nuclear Age Volume 9. San Diego, California: Greehaven Press, Inc, 2002.

Pan, Esther. "Iran: The Nuclear Threat ." Council on Foreign Relations. 6 Sept 2005. Council on Foreign Relations. 10 Feb 2009 http://www.cfr.org/publication/8830/.

Pike, John. "German Special Weapons." GlobalSecurity.org. 28 April 2005. GlobalSecurity.org. 10 Feb 2009 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/germany/nuke.htm.

Objective 2:

When examining the effects of nuclear weapon use and testing, it is important to first examine what efforts go into constructing a nuclear weapon. Though a major emphasis is placed on the scientific aspect of creating nuclear weapons, there are other major economic and political factors that are involved in the process. After the U.S. detonation of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, an entire bag of whirling consequences was let loose. The exploration into how that monumental event transpired begins with the smallest component of all matter: the atom.

The atom was first deemed the smallest unit of all matter by two Greek philosophers, Leucippus and Democritus, in the late 5^th-century B.C.[12] The irreducible and indestructible atom was believed to make up all things on earth, with different materials consisting of differently sized atoms. In 1897, J. J. Thomson contributed to the model of the atom by discovering the presence of negatively charged particles, or electrons, that spin in orbits. These electrons were balanced out by protons, which were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1911 (though his model has been rejected for the incorrect placement of positive charges.1) The atom reached a convenient and well-used structure by modern standards from the theories of Niels Bohr in 1913.1 He proposed that electrons orbited a tightly packed nucleus that was filled with positively charged protons. The neutron, which was a neutrally charged particle that rested in the nucleus and completed the configuration of the atom, was not discovered until1932 by James Chadwick1.

In the budding development of nuclear technology in the 20^th-century, the structure of the atom was becoming common knowledge to most scientists. It was during this time that Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, collaborated on the study of nuclear fission, and the bombardment uranium atoms with neutrons, that resulted in their famous discovery in 1938. [13] They had first hypothesized that this process of bombardment would just result in a heavier uranium atom, but instead, discovered that atoms, when bombarded with neutrons, would result in the formation of two smaller atoms, usually barium, a neutron that could continue splitting other atoms, and high amounts of energy (at the subatomic level).

Text Box: The nuclear fuel cycle http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/images/nuc_fuel.gif Text Box: The process of nuclear fission http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fission This knowledge of nuclear fission was the basis of creating the atomic bomb for the scientists of the Manhattan Project. Formed in 1942 after rumors that Germany was investigating its own nuclear technology, the Manhattan Project (formally known as the Manhattan Engineer District) was headed by General Leslie R. Groves through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, with alliances between Canada and the United Kingdom. J. Robert Oppenheimer would be the lead chemist, and would collect many scientists around the country to participate in the top secret project. However, the scientists could not just merely obtain uranium and build a bomb with it. Natural uranium contains mostly isotopes that have 92 protons and 146 neutrons (U-238), which undergo fission only one-fourth of the time.[14] Yet a different uranium isotope, with 92 protons and 143 neutrons (U-235), can undergo fission almost every time a neutron hits it. To obtain just this type of uranium isotope is achieved through a process known as enrichment, which requires scientists to separate the fissile material of a uranium sample from the non-fissile material to acquire enough uranium at critical mass that can produce a chain reaction. Practically all of the $2 billion funds for the project were spent constructing facilities in which to enrich uranium.[15] The most prominent facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee practiced two ways in which to enrich uranium (they would also be the first to build a plutonium nuclear reactor.) The first was the process of electromagnetic separation that stemmed from nuclear fission, and the second was a method known as gaseous diffusion. [Gaseous diffusion converts the uranium into gas by increasing the temperature of the uranium in a tank, where the heavier uranium isotopes move to the walls and the lighter U-235 are siphoned through a porous barrier through the inner curve of the tank.]

All of these capabilities allowed the United States to surpass their competitors in this nuclear arms race. Thousands of employees worked at the Oak Ridge facility, including all types of physicists, chemists, engineers and mathematicians.

Text Box: Sites of the Manhattan project http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project Many students also worked there, unaware of the true purpose by which they were gaining experience in the field of nuclear science. By early 1945, enough material had been collected to begin constructing the nuclear devices. The first one of these, named “Trinity” was used in the first successful nuclear test near Alamogordo, New Mexico on July 16, 1945. The other two weapons, named “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” (respective to their sizes), would be used in the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki later that year[16].

Text Box: A model of “Little Boy” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_boy Both “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” are known as one of the basic types of nuclear bombs, the atomic bomb, which means they developed from nuclear fission. Though “Little Boy” was a gun-type device using uranium and “Fat Man” was a more complicated and powerful implosion weapon using plutonium, both issued a combined effect of almost 38 kilotons of TNT. The second basic weapon type is the thermonuclear bomb, or hydrogen bomb as it is more commonly known as, which can produce major explosions in the megaton range[17]. Hydrogen bombs rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen, where multiple like-charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus, and ultimately contribute to nuclear fission. Other examples of lesser-known nuclear weapons include a boosted fission weapon, a neutron bomb, and a salted bomb. Most of these various bombs are attempts to create bombs that are smaller in size but greater in magnitude.

Effects of Nuclear Weapons Testing

Most nations that have developed nuclear bombs at the end of the twentieth century found a medium for testing them. The scientific motivation for testing a bomb is to find out how the bomb works, under what conditions and the effect nuclear explosions have on a target. Politically, however, the intentions can be just as dangerous. The testing of a nuclear weapon in a country not only establishes its scientific and military strength, but also confirms its nuclear status. The only acknowledged nuclear country that claims to not have tested is South Africa, but experts agree that a reliable nuclear arsenal is dependent upon nuclear testing (South Africa has since dismantled all of its weapons as of 1991, the first nation to voluntarily relinquish control of its nuclear weapons.) The most explicitly political nuclear bomb test was conducted by the Soviet Union in 1961. The 50 megaton “Tsar Bomba” was the largest bomb every tested but was too large to be practically used, and there is no evidence to prove that another was ever created.

The first nuclear weapons test at Alamogordo, New Mexico, as mentioned before, was a huge success at the time. The device exploded with the energy equivalent of 20 kilotons of TNT, left a crater of radioactive glass 10 feet deep and 1,100 feet wide, emitted a blinding light, created heat comparable to that of an oven, produced a shock wave that was felt over 100 miles away, and released a mushroom cloud that reached 7.5 miles in height. But while these effects were notable, the effect of nuclear fallout not conclusive in the “Trinity” experiment and was not fully understood until after the bombs were dropped in Japan. The success of “Trinity” determined the outcome of the bombs dropped at Nagasaki and Hiroshima. “Fat Man”-of similar design to “Trinity”- was detonated on August 9^th of the same year.

Types of Nuclear Weapon Testing

Nuclear weapons testing have occurred in all environments: atmospheric, underwater, and underground. Atmospheric testing uses devices detonated on towers, balloons, barges, islands, or dropped from airplanes. Some have even been tested by rockets. Between 1945 and 1996, 2,000 bombs have been tested, and of these, 500 were atmospheric. Atmospheric testing was banned by the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963 due to the concern of radioactive fallout.

Underwater testing refers to nuclear weapons testing under or near the surface of the water. Relatively few tests have been conducted underwater. Operation Crossroads, conducted by the United States in 1946 at its Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands, with the purpose of evaluating the effects nuclear weapons against naval vessels. In 1955, the United States conducted a similar underwater nuclear test, dubbed Operation Wigwam, to determine the vulnerability of submarines to nuclear explosions. Underwater nuclear explosions close to the surface of the water can displace large amounts of radioactive water and steam, contaminating nearby ships. Underwater testing was also banned in the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

Underground testing indicates the testing of nuclear weapons at varying depths beneath the surface of the ground. They constitute 75% of all nuclear explosions detonated during the Cold War. When the explosion is fully contained, fallout is negligible compared to atmospheric testing. However, if underground tests vent to the surface, radioactive debris can result. Underground testing was banned by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.

Hazards of Nuclear Weapon Testing

Nuclear tests involve many hazards. In the United States in 1954, the Castle Bravo test illustrated many of them. The goal was to test a dry fuel thermonuclear hydrogen bomb device at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. Residual radiation hazard from the nuclear explosion poisoned the inhabitants of the islands and raised concerns about thermonuclear testing from then on. By comparison, the Castle Bravo bomb was 1,200 times more powerful than the bombs dropped at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and was a dramatic surprise to scientists. The explosion caused the fallout plume to spread radiation for over a hundred miles due to a weather pattern that spread in a direction not predicted by scientists.

The Castle Bravo nuclear test

http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/coldwar/images/bravo.jpg

Unpredictably large yields, changing weather patterns, and radiation fallout are prevalent hazards of nuclear testing and have also occurred in other nuclear tests conducted by other countries. India’s Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was the first statesman to call for a “stand still” agreement on nuclear testing on 2 April, 1954. This did little to slow the widespread nuclear testing of the 1960’s, which saw 178 tests in 1962 alone. France and China became nuclear weapons states in 1960 and 1964, respectively. Global fallout rates caused concern and eventually the formation of the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. At that time, the United States and the Soviet Union consisted of 86% of the world’s nuclear testing countries and agreed to the stipulations of the treaty that required nuclear testing to be restricted to underground. The Limited Test Ban Treaty was followed by the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty in 1968, which stated that non-nuclear weapons states were prohibited from, inter alia, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Little progress was made in nuclear disarmament due to the Cold War after 1968 but in 1996 the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was created and stated that:

Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapons test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapons tests explosion or any other nuclear explosion.

Health Effects of Atomic Bombs in Japan

The immediate effect of the two bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was radiation. Gamma rays and neutrons permitted through human bodies for almost 2.3 kilometers. One minute after the detonations, radioactivity existed in the soil and other building materials that were blasted apart. Black rain fell for 2 hours 20 minutes after the explosions, even in remote areas far from the area the bomb was dropped and caused those places to be exposed to radioactivity. Less immediate effects of radiation were caused by burns due to thermal radiation and fire, injuries from the blast, and radiation effects. Acute sickness developed in people in the year of the explosion but usually recovered from a variety of symptoms 5 months after the explosion. Burns due to thermal rays accounted for the majority of acute sickness deaths. Long term illnesses were mostly caused by burns which formed keloids in 1-4 months with the protuberance of their scars. Keloid incidence, along with leukemia, appeared in 1946-1947. Nerve problems, aging, and sickness due to in utero exposure have also been observed.

Peaceful Nuclear Explosions

Scientists experimented with peaceful nuclear explosions for economic reasons. The Soviet Union pursued the most vigorous programs for peaceful nuclear explosions, with objectives for deep seismic sounding; creating underground storage cavities; helping to extract gas and oil; extinguishing burning gas or oil wells; creating reservoirs and helping to construct a canal.

Works Cited

Cirincione, Joseph. Bomb Scare: The History and Future of Nuclear Weapons. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.

Diehl, Sarah. Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook. 2nd. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008.

(unknown author), "Historical Models of the Atom." Common Sense Science 2007 17 Feb 2009 <http://www.commonsensescience.org/atom_models.html#top>.

(unknown author). "Nuclear Weapon." Wikipedia 11 Feb 2009 19 Feb 2009 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon>.

(unknown author) "Hiroshima & Nagasaki Bombings." Hiroshima Day Committee 16 Feb 2009 <http://www.hiroshimacommittee.org/Facts_NagasakiAndHiroshimaBombing.htm>.

(unknown author), "Peaceful Nuclear Explosions." CTBTO Preparatory Commisssions 2. 19 Feb 2009 <http://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/peaceful-nuclear-explosions/page-2/>.

(unknown author), "Outline History of Nuclear Energy." World Nuclear Association Sep 2008 19 Feb 2009 <http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf54.html>.

(unknown author). "Uranium Enrichment." U.S. NRC 20 Dec 2007 19 Feb 2009 <http://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html>.

Objective 3:

In the early 1900s, a group of scientists discovered quantum mechanics¹, which demonstrated the capability of nuclear fission to be used as a weapon, either as a deterrent against pre-emptive strike, or as a form of aggression against rivals or enemies.

Nazi Germany

Text Box: Nuclear experiment in Germany during WW II. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project Ever since Adolf Hitler and his fascist party came into power, Nazi Germany was looking for new methods of mass destruction. The administration under Hitler constantly employed scientists in order to develop these weapons, the bigger and better cudgels of the new age.[18] [But American scientists were producing more successful results, as the previous objective shows.] Because of its novelty, and discovery during the financially harsh times of the Second World War, the development of these weapons were delayed and underfunded, with its resources usually diverted towards more conventional weapons, such as tanks and chemical weapons.[19] Ironically, due to the focus on typical instruments of warfare and not on experimental projects, the Germans were not able to develop these weapons in time, and lost the scientific edge in the war.

The United States

Once the United States found out about the Nazi ambitions, President of the U.S., Franklin D. Roosevelt, counter-launched the United States’ own nuclear weapons program, named the “Manhattan Project.” As a part of the Allied coalition, and as the self-proclaimed savior of the “free world,” the United States would do anything to ensure its victory, although, at the time, the moral implications of the power of nuclear warfare were not realized. But when Roosevelt authorized the Manhattan Project, he understood that the success of making this weapon would single-handedly win the war.[20] However, even though much emphasis was put on the magnitude of destruction the bomb would be capable of causing, the Americans, at the time, “did not consider actually using the bomb, as ‘the bomb could probably not be used without killing large numbers of civilians, and this may make it unsuitable for use by this country. Rather, the [Americans] thought it necessary to have a bomb to deter German use.” This was the reasoning behind the minds of Einstein, Oppenheimer, and the other major players involved in creating this weapon.[21] Robert Wilson, the head of the Manhattan project’s nuclear physics division, said ''To win a war, one has to give himself up to war, you can't play Hamlet and fight a war at the same time.” There was a conflict of interest between being ethical, and being safe, in a time of constant fear of annihilation.[22]

Despite the original intention for peaceful purposes, many historians believe that, during the period immediately before the detonation of the Atom Bombs used in Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Harry Truman, the current president at the time, had known that Japan was on the verge of surrender. Regardless, the bomb was detonated due to the “political leverage” the action would have over the Soviet Union during the postwar period.[23]

The Soviet Union

Thousands of miles away, on the other side of the world, the Soviet Union had plans to end the long American-dominated field of nuclear weaponry. Since the deployment of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the U.S.S.R. had been in fear of the huge advantage nuclear weaponry gave the United States, and only the United States. By 1949, the United States had already had a four-year long monopoly on this “genocidal tool,” and that was four years too long for its leader at the time, the dictator Joseph Stalin. By no means did the nuclear monopoly equal nuclear superiority, as the lack of development of adequate delivery capabilities and a limited quantity of nuclear weapons hindered the United States’ nuclear capabilities.

Text Box: Vladimir Putin, former Russian president, displeased with Americans to create a missile shield in Eastern Europe http://www.topnews.in/files/Vladimir-Putin2.jpg But nevertheless, to Stalin, having nuclear weapons was a symbol, a “symbol of industrial might, scientific accomplishment, and national prestige.” He told his scientists in the aftermath of the detonation of the first nuclear weapons, “Hiroshima has shaken the whole world. The balance has been broken. Build the bomb – it will remove the great danger from us.”[24]

The U.K. and France

Atomic weapons were becoming the currency of power. Policy was increasingly influenced by the strong belief in the diplomatic utility of these new weapons. This view remains a powerful hold on policy makers in many countries today.[25] During the years after the Soviet Union’s discovered nuclear capability, there was no nuclear presence in Western Europe, and in order to deter Soviet advances onto Allied territory, the British and French both thought having nuclear bombs would deter any possible attack. France was first prompted to jumpstart its civil nuclear research program after witnessing the intervention of the United States in the Suez Canal Crisis, and noting the diplomatic tension that resulted.[26]

China

In 1959, the Soviet Union had cut off support for China’s nuclear program, among many things.[27] The relationship between the neighbors intensified, and China, faced with a potentially belligerent enemy on its Northern border, pursued a nuclear weapons program of its own. Mao Zedong, the famous communist leader of China, authorized the nuclear program, stating that “without a nuclear weapon, China would not be taken seriously.”[28] The possession of nuclear weapons was believed to be able to deter USSR and United States, giving China more negotiating power in global diplomacy, and directly after the detonation of its first test nuclear bomb, the United States were shocked at the advanced stage of Chinese nuclear weaponry, despite having satellite surveillance for months on the region.

The Current Situation of Nuclear Proliferation

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is an international effort to promote non-proliferation, disarmament, and the right to peaceful nuclear technology use. Countries have signed the treaty for three main reasons.

1. Nuclear Weapons should only be in the possession of countries allowed to use them, those that have pledged not to irresponsibly use their nuclear armaments. These five countries are the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Russia (Formerly the Soviet Union), and China.

2. With rival nations all joining the NPT, neither of the nations will resort to nuclear weaponry as an advantage. Instead, countries that feel threatened can compete in relatively safer venues.

3. The NPT desires the disarmament of every political entity in the world, eliminating the high possibility of M.A.D. (Mutually Assured Destruction)[29]

The Volatile Middle East: A Brief Overview

The situation in the present-day Middle East is intense, as several of the countries there have been actively seeking to get this bomb, notably Iraq and Iran.

Israel

Israel is the only nation in the region is believed to have functional nuclear weapons, and although there were suspicions that they had them since the 1960s, the Israeli Prime minister Ehud Olmert seems to have confirmed these suspicions recently in a 2006 interview. When speaking of Iran’s threats to wipe the state of Israel “off the map,” Olmert compared them and their aspirations for nuclear weaponry to “America, France, Israel, and Russia.”[30]

Because of this, the military power of the Middle East is concentrated in Israel and its ally, the United States. It has this advantage over the other non-nuclear powers because “there are fewer risks involved in attacking non-nuclear states versus attacking nuclear-armed states.”[31]

Iran

Most recently Israel’s jealous neighbor, Iran, is developing nuclear weapons in an attempt to break this focus of power. Although it claims that its nuclear program is for peaceful intentions, the United Nations is concerned about this because Iran has kept the program secret for 18 months.[32] Of greater concern is that the anti-Semitic Iranian government has on several occasions, threatened to annihilate the state of Israel.[33] In addition, their president has said that Iran will bring “Death to America”.[34] The personal ambition of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, and his support for its nuclear program is hazy, at best. While Ahmadinejad has said that “a nation with culture, logic, and civilization” would not need nuclear weapons, and that those who seek nuclear weapons are backwards, a short time before this, Ahmadinejad made an announcement, proclaiming the changed status of Iran as a nuclear state, and its ability to “talk to other states from that stand.”[35]

Iran is currently one of the most active seekers of nuclear weapons, and U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates explained their attitudes recently, stating that Iran is a country under pressure, “surrounded by powers with nuclear weapons—Pakistan to their east, the Russians to the north, the Israelis to the west, and [the United States] in the Persian Gulf.”[36]

Text Box: http://www.hyscience.com/archives/Lane-Iran_Nuclear_Po.jpg

Iraq

The Iraqi government was also known recently for trying to develop nuclear weapons. It was motivated by the pressure of its neighbor states Iran and Israel, both of which Iraq interpreted as a threat, so the country increased their operations, attempts to produce the materials needed in constructing the bombs, until they were told to stop to increase its political leverage.[37] Although Iraq may or may not have had nuclear weapons, the mystery behind it may be another foreign-policy negotiating power (Asia Times). The conflict culminated in the Gulf War, in which Iraq’s military reactors were targeted and destroyed.[38] There is evidence that Syria may have a nuclear weapons program for similar reasons.[39]

India and Pakistan

India was known to desire nuclear weapons immediately after World War II. India’s soon-to-be Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru announced on June 26, 1946 that “India will develop her scientific researches” and “Indian scientists will use the atomic force for constructive purposes.” However, if India would be threatened, “she will inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal.”[40] It demonstrated its first nuclear capabilities in May 1974 test.[41] India continued its nuclear program, and although it never joined the NPT or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), it is signatory of the Partial Test Ban Treaty as of October 1963, which bans all nuclear tests except underground.

Pakistan’s nuclear weapon program is closely related to the Kashmir conflict, which the nation shares with India and China. When India tested its first nuclear weapon in 1974, Pakistan was the only state in the conflict without the weapon. In response to the nuclear weapons of India, Pakistan’s Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto declared, “We [Pakistan] will get the nuclear bomb, even if we have to eat grass.”¹⁵ Pakistan’s first nuclear test was in 1998, which finally proved the country’s possession of the bomb.[42]

Abdul Qadeer Khan, nuclear scientists widely known as the founder of Pakistan’s nuclear programs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Qadeer_Khan

The Kashmir Conflict recently came to a climax when, in the 1999 war between India and Pakistan, Pakistan began to prepare its nuclear missiles for deployment. Pakistan’s Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif believed India is doing the same thing. This immediately caught international attention, especially of then-U.S. President Bill Clinton. Fortunately, Pakistan withdrew its troops after U.S.

mediation and a conflict was avoided.

avoided.[43]

North Korea

North Korea’s desire for nuclear weapons is closely related to the impoverished country’s southern neighbor. North Korea’s government has frequently made claims that South Korea is preparing to attack it. This is the country’s main incentive to make nuclear weapons.[44] The country uses its nuclear program to manipulate western powers in two ways. First, it desires to get economic concessions out the United States and other western countries. The second incentive is to deter a possible attack from the towering international powers from attacking it.[45]

All the countries in the nuclear club had sought nuclear weaponry originally for its power, for its leverage, for the caution it causes other possible attackers to consider before invading. In fact, the only time that nuclear weapons have been used in combat were the initial attacks launched by the United States on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Since then, nuclear weapons have merely acted as balancing devices used to deter aggression from rivals, and not as actual weapons. It is for this purpose that non-nuclear states seek to acquire nuclear arsenals.

While no one state has a global nuclear monopoly, nuclear-armed states want to preserve their power over non-nuclear states. The reason that nuclear-armed countries have power over non-nuclear countries is that there are fewer risks involved in attacking non-nuclear states versus attacking nuclear-armed states.[46]

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