Critical Issues Forum

Nuclear Disarmament: Challenges, Opportunities, and Next Steps

Benchmark I

University Laboratory School

Celine Casamina

Brandon Marzan

World Quest Club

10^th Grade Class

Teacher: Suzanne Acord, Ph.D.

2008-2009

Table of Contents

Quote from Senator Will Espero………….………..…………...3

Benchmark I Introduction…………….…………..…………….3

Objective 1……………………..……….…………………..…..3-7

Nuclear Fission......................................................................4

Nuclear Fusion……………………………………………..5

Map of Nuclear Weapon States…………………………….6

Objective 2……………………………….……………………7-10

Little Boy……………………………………………………9

Fat Man……………………………………………………..9

Objective 3……………………….…………………………..10-15

Bibliography………………………..………………………..16-18

“Nuclear weapons are the last things we want to use, if ever, and I certainly believe that civilized men in this world should be able to negotiate across the table and show true leadership if they really care about their population, about their citizens.”

Senator Will Espero

State of Hawaii, District 20

Benchmark I

In this benchmark, things that will be discussed include what a nuclear weapon is and what countries have any affiliations with nuclear weapons. This benchmark will also include both types of nuclear bombs—fusion and fission. It will also discuss the effects of nuclear weapons use and nuclear weapons testing. This benchmark will also include the reasons why nuclear-weapon states have nuclear weapons and why some countries might want nuclear weapons.

Objective 1

What do you think of when you hear nuclear weapons? Many people think of destruction and mushroom clouds. Many people have this preconception without knowing much about nuclear weapons. This paper will discuss what a nuclear weapon is, what is involved in the production of nuclear weapons, and which countries have anything to deal with nuclear weapons. Hopefully, this will bring a better understanding of nuclear weapons to people.

Firstly, what is a nuclear weapon? A nuclear weapon is any weapon in which the explosions are a result of energy that is released from reactions involving atomic nuclei (Atomic Archive, Glossary 7). There are two main types of nuclear bombs, fission bombs and fusion bombs (Nuclear Files, Weapons Basics 1). A fission bomb is a nuclear bomb that uses the process called fission to release energy. Fission is the process in which the nucleus of a heavy element splits into two nuclei of lighter elements, releasing a great amount of energy (Atomic Archive, Glossary 4). Fission was first discovered in 1934 when the Italian, Enrico Fermi, irradiated uranium with neutrons. Though he did not know that he had induced fission at the time, he thought he produced the first transuranic element (Nuclear Files, What is Nuclear Fission? 1).

In nuclear fission, a subatomic particle like a neutron strikes the nucleus of a uranium atom. This causes the uranium atom to split into two pieces, each containing a nucleus with approximately half the neutrons and protons as the original. This process releases a large amount of energy in radiation and warmth. Also emitted are gamma rays and at least two neutrons that are no longer attached by the pieces. These “free” neutrons can now split other uranium nuclei, which as a result release more neutrons that split more nuclei. This process of nuclear fissions, one after another is called a “chain reaction.” A large amount of nuclear energy is released with these “chain reactions.” When these “chain reactions” are in a controlled environment, they can be used to produce electrical energy in a nuclear power plant. When these “chain reactions” are not controlled they can cause a lot of damage. Uncontrolled “chain reactions” are the cause of the explosions of atomic bombs and the destruction they cause (Nuclear Files, What is Nuclear Fission? 1).

Picture 1

Picture 1. “Nuclear Fission” (Atomic Archive). Picture 1 shows nuclear fission. In this process, a neutron strikes through a nucleus of another atom which causes the atom to split into two pieces and “free” neutrons.

The second type of nuclear bomb, a fusion bomb, is a nuclear bomb that uses the fusing of light elements (Atomic Archive, Glossary 4). Fusion is the combining of two nuclei to form a heavier one. Nuclear fusion was first theorized by German, Hans A. Bethe in 1939. Bethe proposed that much of the energy from the sun and other stars are caused by reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei fuse to form one helium nucleus, all while releasing massive amounts of energy. The first human made nuclear fusion was during the early 1950s. American researchers infused a mixture of heavy hydrogen isotopes—deuterium and tritium—into the fission reaction of an atomic bomb consequently making the first hydrogen bomb (Nuclear Files What is Nuclear Fusion? 1).

Picture 2

Picture 2. “Nuclear Fusion” (Atomic Archive). Picture 2 shows nuclear fusion. Two heavy hydrogen isotopes—tritium and deuterium—are infused into the fission reaction of an atomic bomb which then creates a larger helium nucleus.

During the time of the development of these nuclear weapons, World War II was happening in Europe. By the time the hydrogen bomb was created, there was a nuclear arms race between the United States and the former USSR, plus their respective allies. A nuclear arms race is an era in which several countries tested a multitude of nuclear technologies and stockpiled nuclear weapons (HowStuffWorks, How the Nuclear Arms Race Works 1).

Since the nuclear arms race after World War II, there have been more countries added to the Nuclear-Weapon States (NWS). NWS are officially recognized countries under the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) that have nuclear weapons. These countries include China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States. There are also Non-NPT Nuclear Weapon States. These states are not recognized under the NPT to be Nuclear-Weapon States but they still possess nuclear weapons. Those states are India, Israel and Pakistan. Another classification is States of Concern. States of Concern are states that have taken steps in the recent pass to obtain nuclear weapons. These include Iran and North Korea. There are also states that no longer have nuclear weapons programs. These countries include Argentina, Belarus, Brazil, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, and Ukraine (Friends Committee on National Legislation, Nuclear Weapons States 1).

Picture 3

Picture 3. “Map of Nuclear Weapon States” (Friends Committee on National Legislation). Picture 3 shows nuclear-weapon states, non-NPT nuclear-weapon states, states that have renounced nuclear weapons, and states of concern. Each category is marked with a different color.

Objective 2

This objective will focus on effect of the use of nuclear weapons and the effects of nuclear weapon testing. It will mainly focus on the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands. This objective will also focus on the basic weapon types and how they are constructed. Also it will focus on nuclear weapons production.

Although there are many variations of nuclear weapons, the main categories are the atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb (Davis and Purcell, 4), boosted weapon and thermonuclear weapon (Davis and Purcell, 7). While each weapon causes the same disastrous effect, they are detonated and constructed differently. Depending on the nuclear weapon, it can be detonated through nuclear fusion, fusing two atoms to create a single heavy atom, or through nuclear fission, splitting an atom (Davis and Purcell, 4). Atomic bombs are triggered by fusion. It is composed of two elements, plutonium and uranium which cause a chain reaction. Hydrogen bombs are triggered through nuclear fusion. Its main elements are deuterium and tritium (Davis and Purcell, 4). Both elements are fused at high temperatures producing a heavy atom known as helium liberating a large amount of energy when the bomb explodes. Then there are boosted weapons and thermonuclear weapons which uses both methods of nuclear fusion and fission together (Davis and Purcell, 7).

Each of these nuclear weapons is constructed differently from the other. Fission related bombs are constructed through a process called gun assembly. Gun assembly is when two or more fissile materials are combined to form a supercritical mass, an amount of fissile material needed to sustain a chain reaction, by putting mass down a tube similar to a gun barrel, towards another mass. This can only be done using Uranium 235. Another type of procedure is implosion. Implosion is when a high explosive material surrounds a fissile material that is not as dense as critical mass, least amount of fissile material needed in order to sustain a chain reaction. An example of these mentioned materials are the compression of uranium or plutonium (Davis and Purcell, 5). Boosted weapons are constructed from a fusion reaction located at the core of the weapon. It produces neutrons from the fusion increasing a fission reaction. In a thermonuclear weapon, during its primary stage, the temperature and density after fission triggers a fusion reaction that directly releases energy for the bombs explosion (Davis and Purcell, 7).

The explosions of these bombs are devastating. An example of the bombs’ terrible destruction is the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Living in the pacific, citizens of both Hawaii and the Marshall Islands share a common experience that no other state or territory of the United States possess; and those are the personal accounts of people who have encountered involvement with nuclear weapons.

A couple of the most infamous nuclear bombing attacks include Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (Rosenberg, 1). To say that revenge for the attack on Pearl Harbor, on December 7, 1941, was the only reason for the attacks is an understatement. The United States not only wanted revenge, but they also wanted to test their newly created nuclear atomic bombs from the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project, which was directed by General Leslie Groves, began out of the race to produce the first atomic bomb during World War II on June 1942 by the Army Corps of Engineers (National Atomic Museum, The Manhattan Project). As a result, the United States constructed a plutonium bomb: Fat Man, and a uranium bomb: Little Boy (Atomic Archive, Hiroshima, 2. Atomic Archive, Nagasaki, 2).

Picture 4

Picture 4. “Little Boy” (Atomic Archive). Picture 4 shows the inner anatomy of the uranium bomb: Little Boy.

Picture 5

Picture 5. “Fat Man” (Atomic Archive). Picture 5 shows the inner anatomy of the plutonium bomb: Fat Man.

After 4 years of preparation, the United States finally took the liberty of using their newly founded technology on Hiroshima, Japan. On August 6, 1945, President Truman and a few other officials ordered the attack (Rosenberg, 1). A B-29 Superfortress, Enola Gay, secretly flew over the urban and military area from Tinian, dropped Little Boy, and watched their wonderful explosion work its magic on the city and people of Hiroshima (Atomic Archive, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1, Rosenberg, 1). Little Boy immediately killed and injured over 80,000 to 240,000 people, destroyed everything within a 4.4-mile radius, impacted anything within a 37-mile radius, and permanently scarred Japan in countless ways (Atomic Archive, Hiroshima, 8,9). Toxic “black rain” and other effects of radiation also struck the people: nausea, leukemia, loss of hair and bleeding, cataracts, tumors, birth defects, and deaths (Atomic Archive, Hiroshima, 9, 13).

Not quite satisfied with their success of the Hiroshima bombing, the U.S. decided to do another flyover bombing, but this time on Nagasaki. The U.S. gave little time for Japan to surrender which was the reason why the U.S. chose to bomb Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, just three days after the bombing on Hiroshima (Rosenberg, 2).

These events weren’t the only ones involving atomic bomb testing or attacking from the United States. There was also the nuclear testing on the Marshall Islands. Within the time period of about 32 years (June 30, 1946, to August 18, 1958), the United States tested 67 atmospheric nuclear tests on both the Bikini and Enewetak atolls. These tests had similar effects on the natives, just like the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings (Marshall Islands, 1).

Objective 3

Objective 3 will discuss the categories in which nations fall under in nuclear weapons terms. It will discuss the reasons why the United States and Russia developed nuclear weapons. It will also discuss why new nuclear powers developed nuclear weapons. This objective will also go into detail about why countries might want nuclear weapons and become nuclear-weapons powers.

Since the creation of nuclear weaponry, many countries have turned to this new form of warfare. In 1968, the United States and a few other countries negotiated the Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) in an effort to maintain control over the new weapons. China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States are known as the nuclear-weapon states (NWS) – the five states the NPT recognizes to have nuclear weapons. However, there are other countries such as India, Israel, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Libya, and North Korea that either did not sign the NPT in the first place or pulled out of the treaty. All of the countries listed above can be divided into three broad categories based on when their names became linked to the nuclear weapons business: the Old Nuclear Powers, the New Nuclear Powers, and the Potential Nuclear Powers (Arms Control Association, Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance 1).

The United States and Russia are the two nuclear powers that come to mind when one considers the “Old Nuclear Powers.” After World War II, the United States and Russia (formerly known as the Soviet Union) were locked head to head in a nuclear arms race. The Soviet Union was a communist nation, and when it began to gain power and control over Eastern Europe, the United States became concerned about the Soviet’s communist influence and worked to stop the Soviet’s progress. This struggle between the two nations was known as the Cold War, and it lasted for more than forty years (Watson Institute for International Studies, 4).

Both the United States and the Soviet Union, in an effort to obtain the upper hand over the other, pushed the progress of more advanced nuclear weapons. The fact that the Soviet Union continued its nuclear arms program even after the United States put pressure on them to abandon it, instilled the idea that the Soviet’s advancement was a global threat in the minds of many Americans. This was why the United States vigorously pursued being the top nuclear power in the world. They wanted to prevent a nuclear war at all costs, and nuclear strategists reasoned that a nuclear war could be prevented simply with the threat of nuclear retaliation. This strategy is known as deterrence. In other words, neither side would launch a nuclear attack for fear of the opposition’s nuclear response. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, felt that without nuclear weapons, they would be defenseless against the United States and its allies. No country wants to be the underdog if they can help it (Watson Institute for International Studies, 5).

Today, because of their efforts, the United States and Russia are the top two nuclear powers in the world. As of July 1, 2007, the United States had approximately 5,914 strategic warheads, 1,000 operational tactical weapons, and 3,000 reserve strategic and tactical warheads. Russia had approximately 4,237 strategic warheads, 2,000 – 3,000 operational tactical warheads, and 8,000 – 10,000 stockpiled strategic and tactical warheads. These numbers are only what were reported by each country (Arms Control Association, Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance 1).

Many people around the world argue that deterrence is ultimately what protects the United States and other countries from nuclear attacks – that the construction of nuclear weapons is actually making the world a safer place. However, the counterargument to that is that countries can’t rely solely on deterrence and building up their own nuclear arsenal to protect their country. On top of that, there are many factors that could jeopardize the safety of the nations…factors involved with the construction, transportation, and usage of nuclear weapons within the country itself. So far, deterrence has kept the United States and Russia from entering a large-scale nuclear war, but how long will it last and at what cost (Watson Institute for International Studies, 13-14)?

The United States and the Soviet Union may be the two most prominent nuclear-armed countries and were the first two countries to obtain nuclear weapons in the 1940’s. However, over 50 years later, numerous countries have crashed this elite group and there is estimated to be about 12 countries total possessing nuclear weapons. Two of the more prominent countries that have crashed this elite group are India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan have both created headlines with their nuclear programs mainly because of their deep history full of much turmoil. Pakistan was once a part of India, but shortly after India won it’s independence from Great Britain following WWII. India was split into two separate countries in 1947, Pakistan was thus created. The two countries were formed because of radical differences between the two. Pakistan is predominantly Muslim while India is predominantly Hindu. Since the creations of the separate nations India and Pakistan have fought four wars against each other and still remain hostile towards one another. Many believe that nuclear warfare between these two countries is very likely that is why both countries nuclear programs have drawn so much attention worldwide (Watson Institute for International Studies, 20).

India’s first nuclear test occurred in 1974. India’s nuclear capabilities had been known for quite some time however. India’s nuclear program was first started in the mid-forties following WWII. Two factors played heavily into the nation’s decision to start a nuclear program, the power of the atomic bombs dropped onto Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the countries long history of colonization by the United Kingdom. After the U.S dropped its two nuclear bombs on Japan thus ending WWII India truly realized how weak it’s military was and how behind they were technologically. They cited this as the main cause for their colonization for over two decades. India thus started their nuclear weapons program in hopes of gaining the success and power the United States had achieved (Ramana, 1).

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto officially established Pakistan’s nuclear program in 1972. At the time Bhutto was the Minister of Fuel, Power and Natural Resources. The start of the nuclear program started after the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971. The War was fought over a dispute over lands in eastern Pakistan, now Bangladesh. Pakistan lost that war and was humiliated; it is believed that because of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war that Pakistan sought to obtain nuclear weapons. India had already publicly announced that they were in fact seeking to obtain nuclear weapons. Pakistan was only hoping to keep up with its long time rival. Pakistan wanted to make sure her interests and military strength would be maintained. It is estimated that India and Pakistan possess a total of 160-200 nuclear weapons (Federation of American Scientists, Pakistan Nuclear Weapons 1).

Over the past decade, North Korea and Iran have threatened to pursue their own nuclear weapons programs. This has presented a major challenge to the United States and its efforts to control the spread of nuclear weapons. These two nations seek nuclear weapons for defense and protection against the states that already have acquired nuclear weapons. Non-nuclear states continually seek to acquire them to increase their foreign policy leverage and to deter aggression from their rivals. North Korea and Iran have reignited fears of an arms race. Why now? Some believe that is because the foreign policies of countries, like the U.S., have become more aggressive, and as they have become more aggressive, the countries without nuclear weapons will seek to obtain them for protection even more intently. (Marquardt, 1)

Looking at the three categories of past, new and potential nuclear powers, the motives are very similar. All the countries have cited power, protection and leverage as the main cause for their nuclear programs. Whatever the reasons, each of these nuclear powers has moved ahead in the nuclear weapons industry.

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