CIF Project 2008-2009

“Nuclear Disarmament:

Challenges, Opportunities and Next Steps”

Benchmark I

Advanced Physics

Orinda Academy

Student Authors

Elizabeth Agramont
Ian Busher

Crystal Cardona

Ben Freitag

Matt Hirsch

Dylan Kimsey-Hutchinson

Janelle Liu

Yanqi (Grace) Luo

Bev Lyons

Greg Rudy

Van-Anh Su

Jack Wranovics

Editor

Zeke Nierenberg

Faculty Facilitator

Bob Shayler

Faculty Reviewer

Robyn Linder
Table of contents

Objective I

A History of Nuclear Weapons 3

Nations That Have, Had, Want, or Wanted N. Weapons 7

Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings 11

Objective II

Production and Delivery of Nuclear Weapons 14

Effects of Nuclear Weapons Testing 23

Objective III

The Lust for Power 30

Glossary of Terms 32

Objective I

A history of nuclear weapons

The development and proliferation of nuclear weapons demonstrates how powerful they are, both in a physical and psychological sense, and the potential devastating effects they can cause. Nuclear weapons have turned from a once sought after technology to a problem that currently threatens and plagues the entire world. While scientists once strived to create the original atomic bomb, scientists today are working together with world leaders to create universal non-proliferation. The history of nuclear weapons has ultimately proved man’s ability to achieve great feats, and our propensity to turn these accomplishments into destruction. Nuclear weapons have also shown that scientific accomplishments are not always in the best interest for the world as a whole, and can ultimately prove more destructive than beneficial.

The news and potential for a nuclear weapon began to spread at the beginning of World War II and with the threat of Nazi Germany. Just before the outbreak of the war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt received a letter from physicist Albert Einstein and his colleague Leo Szilard warning that an unimaginable force could be produced through the use of nuclear fission. In order to combat the threat posed by Nazi possession of an atomic weapon, organized research began in Britain as part of the “Tube Alloys” project, a code name given to their nuclear weapon plan. British scientists discovered that a fission weapon could be completed within only a few years. When the U.S. Government was told they instituted the Military Policy Committee that became known as the Manhattan Project. The American physicist Robert Oppenheimer spearheaded this effort, which brought the finest scientific minds from around the globe to produce fission-based explosives before Germany could. The U.S. put a previously unheard of investment into wartime research for the project, which was spread throughout more than thirty sites in the U.S. and Canada. The majority of research was done in a laboratory known as Los Alamos in New Mexico.

After four years of hard work that led to many scientific discoveries and ramifications, the scientists were finally ready to test their weapon. On July 16, 1945, in a desert in New Mexico, the first nuclear test took place, subsequently named “Trinity.” The test was successful; the power of the weapon was far greater than any previous weapon. Truman heard arguments from scientists and military officers over the possible uses of the weapons against Japan, and decided to use it against populated Japanese cities. Truman hoped to send a powerful message that would force the Japanese to surrender and avoid a costly, bloody invasion of the island. While Tokyo was an initial target for the first bomb, the city of Hiroshima was the first city to be the target of a nuclear attack. A uranium-based weapon, “Little Boy”, was unleashed on August 6, 1945, while a plutonium-based weapon, “Fat Man”, was dropped onto the city of Nagasaki only three days later. The effects were devastating; the bombs killed at least one hundred thousand Japanese citizens through heat, radiation, and blast effects. Additionally, many thousands died later of radiation sickness and related cancers. For the U.S., the test proved successful as Japan surrendered on August 15 of 1945.

Soon after the first nuclear weapons were launched, the Soviet Union began plans to build their own atomic bombs. After undergoing nuclear researching and development at a site similar to that of Los Alamos, the Soviets were ready to reveal their product. On August 29, 1949, the USSR tested its first fission bomb, named “Joe-1” by the U.S., years ahead of American predictions. This resulted in the nuclear arms race, a competition for nuclear warfare supremacy between the U.S., the Soviet Union, and each of their respective allies during the Cold War. This eventually led to the era of Russian paranoia in the U.S. known as McCarthyism, which occupied the end of Truman’s presidency and led into Dwight Eisenhower’s presidency. In the late 1940s to early 1950s, however, Truman instituted a plan to develop the first thermonuclear weapons, which were to be far more powerful and destructive than the atomic bombs used in Japan.

Many scientists at Los Alamos resisted the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. The issue was both a technical and moral one as the weapon design was still uncertain and the scientists thought the weapon an implement of genocide and one that could end humanity’s existence on earth. However, President Truman, being in the midst of a nuclear arms race decided to continue. On January 31, 1950, Truman announced a plan to develop the hydrogen bomb. The first bomb of this kind was tested by the U.S. as “Operation Ivy” on November 1, 1952, on Elugelab Island in the Enewetak Atoll of the Marshall Islands. Its explosion yielded 10.4 megatons of energy, more than 450 times the power of the bomb dropped onto Nagasaki. Elugelab was obliterated; an underwater crater that spanned over a mile wide and 164 feet deep now encompasses the location where the island had once been. The Soviet Union tested its first thermonuclear device on August 12, 1953. This device, unlike the U.S.’s, was a deliverable weapon and caused much concern and panic among U.S. government officials. However, the U.S. accomplished the same feat less than a year later on February 28, 1954, when the U.S. detonated its first deliverable thermonuclear weapon, in what is known as the “Castle Bravo” test, at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. This explosion was the worst radiological disaster in U.S. history as over 7,000 square miles were contaminated. While the contaminated islands were evacuated and are still unpopulated, many natives suffered elevated levels of cancer and birth defects in the years to come.

The “Castle Bravo” test proved to initiate the era of non-proliferation as countries saw the devastating effects a thermonuclear weapon can have. While fission bombs were only able to destroy major cities, hydrogen bombs could destroy all life on earth. During the 1950s and early 1960s, a series of actions took place between the U.S. and the USSR to prevent the other powers from acquiring nuclear weapons. Beginning in 1951, the Nevada Test Site became the main location for all U.S. nuclear testing. Many renowned scientists and politicians called for a ban on nuclear testing because testing is necessary for technological development and contrary to the principles of non-proliferation. In 1958, the U.S., USSR, and the United Kingdom mandated a break in nuclear testing for both political and health reasons. However, the Soviet Union broke this agreement only three years later, which led to even more testing by both the U.S. and the Soviets. Every nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963, promising to refrain from testing in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The only area permitted for testing was underground tests.

Around this same time, weapon improvement began that allowed for greater power and efficiency of weapons during wartime. In 1953, the U.S. first deployed the first nuclear-tipped rockets, surface-to-surface missiles with relatively short ranges but yield twice the size of the initial fission weapons. Another important development, the Strategic Air Command, allowed for a number of nuclear-armed planes in the sky at all times, ready to attack Moscow whenever ordered. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s policy of “massive retaliation” in the early years of the Cold War was a message to the Soviets, ordering that certain parts of Europe must not be invaded or else nuclear weapons would be used against the Soviet troops and even the Soviet leaders. To combat any Soviet survivors thinking of retaliating in response to a U.S. retaliation, military officers and game theorists devised a plan known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). This program divided potential nuclear war into two stages: a first strike and second strike. The initial strike would be the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped nation against another nation that possessed nuclear weapons. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, then a second strike could be deployed against the attacking nation. In this situation, both the attacking and attacked nations would be destroyed beyond repair, which logically meant that no country would willfully enter into a nuclear war. If a country were to deploy a bomb that would totally prevent another country from retaliation, then nuclear war would be possible. This first-strike threat led to many defense mechanisms by both the U.S. and the USSR that prevented the other side from an initial attack. The U.S., for instance, funded the development of SAGE, a system that would track and intercept enemy bomber aircraft using information from radar stations.

With improved nuclear development, leaders expressed their desire to engage in a nuclear war rather than concede any advantage to their opponents. This resulted in the public’s fear of both their own future and that of humanity. The height of brinksmanship came in early 1962, when an American spy plane photographed a series of launch sites for ballistic missiles being constructed on the island of Cuba, initiating what is now known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. President John F. Kennedy’s administration concluded that the USSR was planning to station Russian nuclear missiles on the island. Kennedy declared a naval quarantine would be put around Cuba to deter any Soviet nuclear shipments, and prepared for any Soviet resistance. The USSR leader, Nikita Khrushchev, offered to withdraw all missiles if Kennedy would commit to a policy of no future invasions of Cuba. Eventually, the Soviet ships withdrew from the island, and the crisis was resolved. However, the crisis proved to be the closest the U.S. and the USSR ever came to nuclear war. In the years to come, the U.S. and the USSR collectively worked to reduce nuclear tensions. The most important agreement between these two superpowers was the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, in which the U.S. and USSR agreed to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space.

The Cold War was a time of great uncertainty and anxiety regarding the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The fear of global destruction prevented the use of atomic bombs during the war. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (or ABM treaty) was signed by the U.S. and the USSR in 1972 to stop the progress of defenses against nuclear weapons. The doctrine, however, led to an increase in the number of nuclear weapons, as each side wanted to fully equip itself to prepare for any attack from the enemy. Early transportation systems for nuclear devices were primarily bombers such as the U.S. B-29 Superfortress, Convair B-36, and the B-52 Stratofortress. These systems were developed throughout the Cold War until plans and treaties restricted their usage. Eventually, after the fall of the Soviet Union, system development halted and many weapons were disabled and destroyed. There have been numerous nuclear threats in U.S. history; U.S. nuclear weapons have been lost near Atlantic City, New Jersey; Savannah, Georgia; off the coast of Okinawa; in the sea near Palomares, Spain; and near Thule, Greenland. While the end of the Cold War reduced widespread fear of nuclear war dramatically, the war failed to end the threat of nuclear weapon use.

To this day, nuclear weapons have been a symbol of both progress and savagery. While the technological advances made in science have been extraordinary and representative of the progress in humanity, the threat of nuclear warfare has been and still is a major threat to the existence of humanity. While science generally benefits the good and stability of humanity, nuclear weapons have and will always remain detrimental to the world as we know it. Nuclear weapons show that science in the wrong hands can prove grave and destructive, and not all scientific findings should be used. History has shown that nuclear weapons are an example of the negatives in science, and a discovery that all of humanity would be better off without.

Sources

“History of nuclear weapons.” December 24, 2008. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. December 28,2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons

“Nuclear Weapons: History of Nuclear Weapons.” January 26, 2005. Come Clean WMD Awareness Programme. December 18, 2008. http://www.comeclean.org.uk/articles.php?articleID=14

“Cold War.” January 3, 2009. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. January 4, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War

Nations that have, had, want or wanted Nuclear Weapons

To our best knowledge only nine countries currently possess nuclear weapons, but many other nations wanted them. This is an attempt to catalogue all the states that currently have nuclear weapons, all the states that had them and gave them up, all the states that wanted them but had to give up, and all the states that are still trying to get some.

There are five nations that the current nuclear regime, under the Non Proliferation Treaty, recognizes. These are states that have signed the NPT as nuclear weapon states, or NWS. These countries are: the United States, Russia, China, The United Kingdom, and France. These countries also make up the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and have veto power over membership to the UN and any resolutions. These countries all possess sophisticated, large, modern armies, navies, and air forces. Each of them developed nuclear weapons during the Cold War to provide a deterrent to enemies.

The United States was the first nation to test a nuclear bomb in 1945 and the first to drop it the same year. The U.S. was also the first to develop fusion weapons. The number of warheads in America’s arsenal has declined dramatically since its height during the Cold War. The exact number of operational nuclear weapons is classified, however, it is estimated to be around 4,000. These weapons can be deployed through any of three means, known collectively as the triad. They can be fired from sea on nuclear powered submarines known as boomers, from the air on a variety of bombers, or from land based ICBM’s located primarily in the northwestern United States. The United States was an early signer of the NPT. The U.S. has signed, but not ratified, the comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty (CTBT), but has agreed to a moratorium on it. The United States is one of the main members of Nuclear Suppliers Group.

The Soviet Union was the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, their first test taking place in 1949. They compiled an extensive arsenal that could be deployed by ICBM’s SSBN’s and by bombers. After the dissolution of the USSR, Russia was left with the majority of the nuclear weapons of the former state. Although the exact figure is classified, the best estimates place their arsenal at around 14,000 weapons. They have the resources and capability to make many more; they are estimated to have 735 to 1,365 metric tons of highly enriched uranium (HEU) and 106 to 156 tons of plutonium. Russia has undergone extensive modernization of its arsenal. Russia is a member of all major treaties and export regimes, but their compliance with the missile technologies control regime (MTCR) is questionable given their technological support to various nations.

The United Kingdom felt that to maintain their world power status they needed to develop the capability to create nuclear weapons independently of the United States. They currently possess an extensive arsenal consisting of less than two hundred strategic nuclear weapons all based on submarines, one of which is patrolling at all times. They are members to all major treaties and export regimes.

France began their nuclear weapons program under President de Gaulle who wanted a nuclear arsenal independent of NATO because he feared that during the Vietnam War the United States would not defend Western Europe from Russia. The French nuclear program was scaled back after the Cold War and now consists of 348 Nuclear weapons that can be delivered by plane or submarine. They are members to all major treaties and export regimes.

China developed their nuclear program despite a Russian withdrawal of technological help. They had their first nuclear test in 1964 and 32 months later had a thermonuclear device. China has about 400 nuclear weapons and the ability to make many more. China has a wide variety of missiles and is undergoing substantial redevelopment. Although not a member of MTCR, they have pledged to follow it. They signed NPT as a NWS and have pledged a no first use policy.

Four states have not signed or pulled out of the NPT. Pakistan, Israel, India, and North Korea are not in the NPT and have nuclear weapons.

Israel has a nuclear policy of opacity. They neither confirm nor deny their possession of nuclear weapons. This has worked so well that they have made this a long-term policy. They are not members of the NPT. They have somewhere in the neighborhood of a hundred to two hundred nuclear weapons, making them the 6^th largest nuclear power. Israel probably has nuclear weapons of various sizes and may have a thermonuclear weapon. The first weapon was made in May of 1967 and it was ready for use in the Yom Kippur (1970) war. Israel’s delivery methods can also be opaque; we know that they have the Jericho and Jericho II missile, which can be fitted with a warhead and strike targets throughout the Middle East. Israel bought a diesel submarine from the Germans that can be outfitted with cruise missiles carrying nuclear weapons.

India is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; however unlike Israel they declared their status as a NWS in 1998 and have been approved by the NGS in a bilateral nuclear trade deal with the United States. They have around fifty to sixty warheads under the control of the Indian army and the material to make over 40 more. They claim to have tested a thermonuclear device, but that is doubtful because seismic activity was relatively minor. Their weapon program began in 1968 in response to India’s war with China and they had their first test in 1974. They practice a policy of “minimum deterrent” and so only possess ballistic missiles and planes, but no ICBMs. This is believed to be an effort not to intimidate the NPT five, with the exception of neighboring China. India shares a border with nuclear Pakistan. The relations between the two nations have long been tense, and have grown worse following the terrorist attacks in Mumbai last year.

Pakistan is also not a member of the NPT. They have around fifty warheads and the material for another fifty. They have both cruise and ballistic missiles. They began their program in the seventies.

North Korea, also known as PDRK, withdrew from the NPT in 2003 and unlike the other three non-members; the five members of the NPT do not tolerate North Korea’s possession of nuclear weapons. North Korea has been in he midst of serious de-proliferation talks. It is unclear how many nuclear weapons North Korea has left, but it is likely that they only have one. North Korea has a variety of medium and long-range missiles, but no ICBM’s. They provided various weapons to Iran and are undergoing extensive missile development.

Many consider Iran a non-compliant member of the treaty. Their nuclear program began in the fifties under the Shah and has continued until the present. After the Iran-Iraq war in which Saddam Hussein used chemical weapons against the Iranian army. The Ayatollahs are believed to be more interested in a nuclear program. Their insistence on controlling the nuclear fuel cycle is regarded as suspicious. They have mining, milling, and enrichment capabilities for U. 235. Many observers feel that the Iranian nuclear program is at least 3 years from developing a nuclear weapon. If they ever did obtain it they would put it on a mid range Shahab that is based off of scuds and no-dongs.

Iraq is currently a compliant member of the NPT. But, during the 1980’s Saddam vigorously pursued nuclear weapons, spending hundreds of millions of dollars on the project. According to the Bathists, this was a counterweight to the Israeli arsenal, although it was also a part of Saddam’s attempts to cement his power at the center of the Arab world. They had a French nuclear reactor that was bombed by Israel, which discouraged France from selling another. Saddam still pushed ahead and by the Gulf War had complete plans for a nuclear weapon, but no way of manufacturing it. After the Gulf War, Hussein apparently abandoned his plans for nuclear weapons. There were baseless rumors that he had sent his developments to Syria for safekeeping.

Syria, with its poor military and de jure war with nuclear power Israel, wanted an arsenal of its own. However, it was expensive and the biggest result of this is a 30kw reactor that follows IAEA regulations. In 2007, Israel bombed a site that it (along with American intelligence) clamed was a plutonium producing reactor.

Some states have given up ambitious nuclear programs altogether or for merely civilian control. These states include Libya, Argentina, and Brazil.

Quedaffi, a dictator, rules Libya. He had been after nuclear weapons and had a reactor. He wanted to get off of a U.S. state sponsors of terror list and agreed to give up the program.

Brazil is now a member of NPT and has a bilateral agreement with Argentina whose nuclear program has been largely parallel. They gave up a broader program that was not in compliance with IAEA regulations and put the program under civilian control, instead of under the navy. They currently have little control over the fuel cycle, but they are building a refinement plant that will eventually supply three reactors. Their navy is developing plans for a nuclear submarine in consultation with Argentina.

Argentina is also a member NPT, they joined in 1995. They have not allowed the IAEA full access but are not suspected of harboring weapons ambitions anymore, like they did during 70’s and 80’s. They gave the U.S. 3.7 kg of weapon’s grade plutonium for safekeeping.

Four countries have given up their nuclear weapons: Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and South Africa. The first three inherited them from the USSR. Kazakhstan is a member of all major organizations and treaties and the Central Asian Nuclear free zone. When the USSR disbanded, Kazakhstan had 1,410 warheads, ICBMs and bombers, in other words, a nuclear super power. But, they sent them back to Russia along with three metric tons of weapon’s grade plutonium and over a thousand kg of HEU.

Ukraine had a similar situation. After the dissolution they had twelve thousand warheads and unspecified tactical weapons. They had 176 ICBMs and forty bombers. They sent all of it back to Russia. Uzbekistan had a smaller problem. They may have had some tactical weapons but they definitely gave up significant amounts of HEU.

South Africa had a different situation. They developed nuclear weapons under apartheid. They had under a dozen uranium, gun style nuclear weapons and after the fall of apartheid they dismantled them.

Sources

“Country Profiles”, Nuclear Threat Initiative. 2008. <www.nti.org>

Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings

In a letter dated July 20, 1945, President Truman wrote to his wife “that as far as

this President is concerned” his main priority was the safety of the United States of America, adding that he wanted Great Britain and Russia to understand that “Santa Claus is dead”.1 His second priority was winning “the Jap War,” and his third was to bring about world peace. The President certainly knew the grave implications of his declaration that he “will do what can be done by us to get” a state of global peace and security, and would prove in less than a month to demonstrate the U.S.’s capacity to kill as many civilians as it deemed necessary. Operations to use the atomic bomb were in their final stages. The U.S. needed to defeat Japan to bring an end to the war. Six days later, Truman and other allied leaders announced The Potsdam Declaration. It was an uncompromising document insisting that the allies would accept nothing short of total Japanese surrender. The only other option for the Japanese was to face “prompt and utter destruction”.2 The Japanese government did not react to the Declaration and demanded that the U.S. allow the Japanese to continue the kotukai and leave the Emperor to rule, end its period of occupation, and allow the Japanese government to prosecute its war criminals.

On August 6, Hiroshima became the first victim of nuclear war. The process of decision to attack came from a list provided by Oppenheimer’s Target Committee. Also on the list were Kyoto, Yokohama, and Kokura, and all were chosen because they were important targets in the middle of urban, industrial areas with enough resources to cause effective damage to the city’s infrastructure. In the word of the Committee, the first attack should be “sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it was released.”3 The military was instructed to ignore all of these cities as primary targets during nighttime raids so conventional bombs would not damage the scientific experiments involving the atomic bomb’s effects on the area. Hiroshima was eventually picked because military scientists were intrigued by the possibility that the adjacent hills could set off focusing effects, and realized that fire-bombing would be impractical due to the local rivers. Kyoto was removed from the list at the insistence of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, who refused to destroy the city where he had his honeymoon. 4

The bombs were dropped by the 509^th Composite Group on the 6^th because the cloud previously blocking the bombers’ view had disappeared. Three B-29s completed the job: Enola Gay, the Great Artiste (an instrumentation ship), and an unnamed aerial photography plane, later named Necessary Evil. The Enola Gay dropped “Little Boy”, a bomb containing 60 kg of U-235, an isotope that had never been tested. There was a serious pressure for the atomic bomb’s threat to not be announced. This was intended as a safeguard in case the bomb malfunctioned. Captain William S. Parsons, who had provided a central role in the Manhattan Project, weaponeered the bomb. According to Parsons, when he dropped the bomb, he felt that he “knew the Japs were in for it, but… felt no particular emotion for it.” Less than 2% of its material fissioned, but the bomb still created a blast equivalent to 13 tons of TNT. As soon as the bomb hit the ground, all nearby radio signals were momentarily obliterated by radioactivity.

The bomb brought unprecedented devastation to the city of Hiroshima. Eyewitnesses reported states of complete shock and horror. Father John A. Siemes, a Professor at Catholic University in Tokyo, reported that windows and doors were almost immediately smashed and twisted inwards. Enormous fires seemed to spring up instantaneously, and they soon swallowed everything in their paths. Those who were not immediately vaporized by virtue of their vicinity to the weapon suffered horrendous burns of varying degrees. The immediate dead had their shadows imprinted onto the surfaces of the streets and buildings (that did not collapse upon impact), and many of the living had the outline of their clothing burned onto their bodies. Refugees filed en masse to the village school at the temporary aid station, but the supply of iodine proved no help. Father Siemes claimed that the locals displayed no desire to help those outside of their immediate family and the community was reduced to tribal tendencies. He saw this as evidence that the Japanese were a people utterly unprepared for disaster, without equipment to care for its citizens, but this reading ignores the fact that the U.S.’s destructive capabilities were essentially unpredictable, and the reality of nuclear catastrophe could hardly be adequately met.

On the Misai Bridge, Japanese soldiers formed a procession in which they carried the wounded. Corpses littered the streets, along with the severely injured for whom there was no hope for survival. Citizens found the only landmark nearby to be the local hospital whose cement structure had withstood the blast. It was later discovered that only one third of the buildings in the city still stood. Several found themselves or their families tossed aside to their abandonment and death by enormous whirlwinds that uprooted the largest trees in the local park. By this point, the sky had become dark, with the only guiding light being the numerous fires, and it became almost impossible to safely tend to the victims. Afterwards, the death toll was measured at 100,000. 130,000 were wounded, and 43,500 were severely wounded. Numerous people were killed from a lack of emergency supplies, which were destroyed in the atomic blast or simply nonexistent.

Nagasaki, an important seaport that produced ships and other military materials, had never been the victim of large-scale bombing before August 9. The Japanese government had not surrendered after its country’s first brush with annihilation, and the U.S. decided to continue its policy of breaking the population through the latest advance in deadly science. Much of the population had evacuated after a relatively minor attack on the shipyards, Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, and local schools and hospitals. Unlike Little Boy, the “Fat Man” bomb was built with Pl-239, and some have hypothesized that Nagasaki’s people died as a result of a scientific experiment to compare the deadly effects of uranium and plutonium, and to harvest the information for future attacks on enemies. Nagasaki had been considered the secondary target, but primary target Kokura was obscured by a 7/10 cloud, and the military had ordered a visual attack. The Japanese government sent an air raid signal, but assumed that the four B-29 planes (only two of which were spotted) were merely on a reconnaissance mission and the signal was turned off at 10:53, seven minutes before The Great Artiste dropped instruments including an unsigned letter to nuclear physicist Professor Ryokichi Sagane. The letter warned of the danger involved in nuclear weapons and urged Professor Sagane to inform the public through his work at the University of Tokyo of the effects of these Weapons of Mass Destruction. However, the military authorities failed to deliver the letter to the professor until a month had passed.5

The bomber dropped Fat Man at 11:01 A.M. when the bombers discovered a break in the clouds. The bomb exploded 469 m above the ground, missing its target by 3 km. The explosion was confined to the valley due to nearby hills, but it still managed to generate a 3,900 degree C heat wave with winds at 1,005 km/h, with a magnitude equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT. Numerous refugees from the Hiroshima bombings were again attacked in the city to which they had escaped. Almost immediately, as in Hiroshima, firestorms spread throughout the city, but in this case water lines were disrupted for at least three weeks. Japan was finally led to unconditionally surrender after the immense death.

The populations of both cities suffered tremendously after the war. According to an Adult Health Study conducted fifteen years after the end of the war, Hiroshima’s citizens disproportionately faced tuberculosis, thyroid disease, and arteriosclerosis. In Nagasaki, bombing victims suffered from syphilis, arthritis, and internal parasitism.

The impact of the bombings went far beyond the citizens of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Father Siemes spoke for untold millions when he rhetorically and sincerely asked of the serious theological and ethical concerns the bombing held for the future of war, science, and humanity itself. “The crux of the matter is whether total war in its present form is justifiable, even when it serves a just purpose. Does it not have material and spiritual evil as its consequences, which far exceed whatever good might result? When will our moralists give us a clear answer to this question?”

Objective II

Production and delivery of nuclear weapons

The aim of the section is to examine the basic procedures of producing and delivering various types of nuclear weapons. The paper intends to take the word “weapon” to mean an explosive weapon, such as a bomb, because nuclear bombs have been the only method to harness the power of nuclear reactions in warfare. It ventures to discuss the components of a nuclear weapons program. The objective is to inform about the bomb fuels needed to trigger the explosive and destructive energy of nuclear weapons, analyze the complexities and efficacies of bomb designs, and synthesize the military strategies behind particular bomb delivery methods. By taking the bomb fuel, bomb design, and delivery systems into account, scientists can more proficiently weaponize the potency of nuclear energy while inspiring the military to implement bombs over enemy targets that maximize devastation, accuracy, and efficiency.

Scientists need to develop usable bomb fuel in order to trigger the bomb device and maximize destructive energy. The mass of the nucleus is about 1% smaller than the mass of its individual nucleons (protons and neutrons). This difference derives from the energy released when the nucleons bind together to form the nucleus. The energy is called the binding energy. Nuclear bombs obtain their destructive force from the energy that binds the nucleus together. To harness binding energy for weapon making, scientists work with radioactive isotopes like uranium-235 and plutonium-239, which are hardly stable and are attempting to reach a more stable nuclear configuration by decaying. Scientists can fission (split apart) unstable isotopes that have high atomic numbers to release energy to fuel nuclear bombs. Scientists can also fuse (join) smaller unstable isotopes with lower atomic numbers, such as the radioactive hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium. Looking at Albert Einstein’s equation E = MC², in which E is energy, M is mass, and C is the speed of light (around 3 x 10⁸ meters/second), illuminates how much energy fission and fusion can release. The formula states that mass (M) can be converted into energy (E) when multiplied by the speed of light (C) squared. The speed of light is a large number and consequently C squared is enormous. Therefore, even a small amount of matter can be converted into an immense amount of energy.

Nuclear fission bombs usually use uranium-235 or plutonium-239 as fuel. Uranium is the heaviest naturally occurring element on Earth, with an unusually large number of neutrons. Uranium ore is dug out of the ground and then processed to extract the pure element. Uranium has two isotopes, uranium-235 and uranium-238. Both are very unstable. Since they both are radioactive, they slowly decay over time. U-235 is the more efficient fissile material because it can undergo induced fission. Instead of waiting more than 700 million years to naturally decay, U-235 can be broken down much quicker if a neutron collides into its nucleus. However, U-235 only represents 0.7110% ^[1] of all naturally occurring uranium. Scientists separate U-235 from the predominant U-238 isotope through enrichment, a physical process to increase the concentration of U-235 relative to that of the U-238 isotope. After reacting uranium with hydrofluoric acid to produce gaseous uranium hexafluoride, scientists use centrifuges to spin the gas up. The centrifuge, equipment that puts objects in rotation around a fixed axis, generates a force thousands of times more powerful than that of gravity. The U-238 atoms are slightly heavier than the U-235 atoms; consequently, they tend to move out toward the centrifuge walls while the U-235 atoms tend to stay more toward the centrifuge center. After processing the uranium in centrifuges many times, scientists can create a gas highly enriched in U-235. When scientists then ram neutrons into a U-235 nucleus, the isotope absorbs it and immediately becomes very unstable, thus splitting into two lighter atoms while emitting two or three new neutrons. The two new atoms give off gamma electromagnetic radiation. The process can be represented by U²³⁵ + n → fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV ^[2]. “n” represents neutrons and “MeV” are megaelectron volts, a measurement of energy. A chain reaction proceeds to occur in an uncontrolled manner, in which neutrons released in fission stimulate an additional fission reaction. The process repeats. In each generation, the number of fission doubles, thus emitting more energy. The same fission reaction occurs with Plutonium-239, which also has high fission probability due to its unstable nature. Since Pu-239 is not a naturally occurring element, it must be manufactured. U-238 reacts with neutrons and quickly undergoes a series of nuclear transformations that results in the production of Pu-239. Uranium and plutonium can not only fuel pure fission bombs, but also fusion bombs.

Nuclear fusion bombs are actually combined fission/fusion weapons requiring an encased fission reaction to initiate fusion, a process meant to augment destructive effect. In hydrogen fusion bombs, deuterium and tritium are used as fuels to form a nucleus of helium and a neutron. However, using deuterium and tritium for fuel proves difficult. Deuterium and tritium are both gases, which are hard to store. In addition, tritium is in short supply and has a short half-life. Therefore, the fuel in the bomb would need to be continuously replenished. Deuterium or tritium also must be highly compressed at high temperatures to initiate the fusion reaction. In the 1950s, scientists discovered how to solve the problems. To store deuterium, scientists chemically combined the gas with lithium to make solid lithium-deuterate compound. They also understood that tritium does not need to be stored in the bomb because the neutrons from a fission reaction can produce tritium from lithium. The formula for producing tritium from lithium is shown below.

^[3]

Lastly, the scientist Stanislaw Ulam discovered that a fission reaction gave off gamma rays, which could supply the thermonuclear temperature and pressures for a fusion reaction. Encasing a fission bomb inside a fusion bomb provided a more sophisticated method to harness the energy of both light and heavy isotopic nuclei. Combined fission/fusion reactions most commonly fuel staged radiation implosion weapons and enhanced radiation bombs. These reactions can also be modified to produce isotopic salted bombs.

After exploring the isotopic material to trigger a nuclear weapon, scientists experiment with combinations of nuclear reactions to develop bomb designs that can improve bomb efficacy and destructive power. In fission bombs, the U-235 or Pu-239 must be kept in subcritical masses when there is too little fissionable material to maintain a fission chain reaction. This prevents premature detonation. To trigger the chain reaction and set off the bomb, the separate subcritical masses must be assembled into a supercritical mass, which is the amount of material needed to start the exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction. Two techniques are used to assemble a supercritical mass: gun-triggered and implosion.

The gun-triggered fission bomb presents the most straightforward method to combine the separate subcritical masses, in which one mass is simply fired into the other. A prime example of the gun-triggered technique is in the “Little Boy” fission bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945. The “Little Boy” design consists of a sphere of U-235 manufactured around a neutron generator, which introduces free neutrons into the supercritical mass to start the fission. A small bullet of U-235 is removed and placed at one end of a long tube with a conventional charge behind it. The sphere of U-235 is placed at the other end. After a barometric-pressure sensor determines the correct detonation altitude, it triggers the charge to fire and propel the bullet down the barrel. The bullet collides with the sphere and the neutron generator, initiating the fission chain reaction. A tamper surrounding the fission reaction increases fission efficiency by exerting pressure to slow its expansion and reflecting neutrons back into the fission core. Eventually, the energy released becomes so great that the bomb explodes. The “Little Boy” bomb had a 14.5-kilton energy yield and an efficiency of around 1.5%, which meant that 1.5% of the fissile material was fissioned before the explosion. ^[4] Below is a depiction of the “Little Boy” bomb.

^[5]

The gun-triggered design is the easiest to design and manufacture. However, while it is suitable for basic U-235 fission bombs, the design is not sophisticated and quick enough to detonate a Pu-239 bomb, as Pu-239 has a rapid spontaneous fission rate.

Scientists opt to use the implosion-triggered bomb design for the Pu-239 fission bomb in order to slow the isotope’s fast spontaneous fission rate. A gun-triggered weapon does not work fast enough to prevent some stray neutrons to emit from the spontaneous fissions, which would start a premature chain reaction and result in a great decrease in energy released. The implosion-type design solves the problem by using explosive charges to compress a sphere of plutonium very quickly to a density adequate to achieve critical mass, which is the minimum mass of fissionable material that can sustain a chain reaction and produce a nuclear explosion. When the bomb is detonated, the explosive fires and creates a shock wave that moves inward, exerting pressure to the bomb core. The core density increases, the mass becomes critical, and then supercritical. The fission reaction begins. The polonium-beryllium generator introduces many free neutrons to the reaction. The chain reaction continues until the energy inside the bomb causes the internal outward pressure to exceed the pressure to the bomb core. The bomb explodes, transferring the energy to the surroundings. Below is a depiction of the “Fat Man” implosion-triggered bomb dropped on Nagasaki in 1945.

^[6]

The “Fat Man” bomb had a 23-kiloton yield with an efficacy of 17%. As compared to the “Little Boy” bomb, the “Fat Man” yield increased by around 59% and the efficiency increased about 10%. The improved results demonstrated the upward trend of nuclear weapon development.

The most common combined fission/fusion weapons are staged radiation implosion weapons and enhanced radiation weapons, which are the most powerful weapons tested to date. The even more powerful salted nuclear weapons have the potential to kill everyone on earth, but have not yet been atmospherically tested. Scientists build staged radiation implosion weapons (or thermonuclear weapons), which use hydrogen isotopes as fuel, to remove the yield limits of fission designs, avoid the cost of manufacturing enriched uranium and plutonium necessary for a certain yield, and to reduce the weight of the bomb. Thermonuclear weapons require a fission explosion (the primary stage) to trigger the fusion (the secondary stage). Most of the yield comes from fusion, which can have yields of a few megatons. The fusion reaction boosts yield by directly releasing a large amount of energy in fusion reactions, and using high-energy neutrons from fusion to discharge energy through the fissioning surrounding the fusion stage. A third fission stage can also be added to produce even greater yield. Theoretically, multiple staging can allow the creation of bombs with unlimited yield. The largest nuclear explosion set off to date was the Tsar Bomba (King of Bombs), a Soviet three stage fission-fusion-fission design. On October 30, 1961, it was exploded over Novaya Zemlya archipelago at an altitude of 4000 m. It derived 97% of its energy from fusion with a yield of 50 megatons, more than 300,000 times the yield of the “Little Boy” fission bomb. ^[7]

Neutron bombs, more formally known as enhanced radiation weapons, are small thermonuclear weapons that release high bursts of ionizing radiation at the moment of detonation to maximize the lethal range of a given yield of a nuclear warhead. The neutron bomb allows the burst of neutrons generated by the fusion reaction to escape instead of being absorbed inside the weapon. As neutrons are more penetrating than other types of radiation, many shielding materials that protect against gamma rays do not work as well. See below for a depiction of the penetration differences among various types of nuclear radiation.

^[8]

The United States has developed neutron bombs to protect U.S. nuclear weapon storage towers from Soviet warheads by damaging the nuclear components of the warhead with intense neutron instability. The U.S. has also used neutron bombs to kill soldiers protected by armor. However, the armor can reduce the lethal range of radiation. Because a lethal dose of radiation only disables several hours later, neutron bombs deliver a dose of 8000 rads ^[9], about 13 times the lethal level to produce immediate and permanent incapacitation. Neutron bombs are also only effective at short ranges, because of the rapid reduction of neutron energy by the atmosphere. In addition, neutron bombs only use a deuterium-tritium gas mixture as fusion fuel. The D-T reaction releases 80% of its energy as neutron kinetic energy and the D-T mixture is the easiest of all fusion reactions to trigger. However, the D-T mixture is expensive and has a short half-life. Neutron bombs only serve specific military-related reasons in short ranges and are expensive to produce, which dampens their broad and adaptable capacities.

Salted nuclear weapons consist of a three stage design of fission-fusion-salting isotope with the goal of maximizing the nuclear fallout hazard. Surrounding the second stage fusion stage is a layer of a specifically chosen salting isotope. The tertiary layer captures the escaping fusion neutrons that generate more nuclear fallout, which is the settling of airborne radioactive particles to the ground after a nuclear bombing. As a result, the location where the bomb dropped would experience large scale radioactive contamination. Different fallout effects can result by using different salting isotopes. For example, gold has been proposed for short-term fallout (days) while cobalt has been suggested for long-term contamination (years). In order to be used in salted weapons, radioactive isotopes must be abundant in the natural element. In addition, the radioactive isotope needs the capacity to be dispersed world wide before it decays. The half-life of Co-60 is long enough to settle out before significant decay happens yet can still produce intense radiation. The detonation of a cobalt salted bomb could possibly kill everyone on earth by releasing fallout that would block out sunlight. The reduced level of sunlight would lower the surface temperature of the planet and reduce plant and bacteria photosynthesis. The attenuation of sunlight would disrupt the food chain, causing mass life extinctions. Due to their mutually destructive nature, salted nuclear weapons are not the optimal choice for enemy warfare. To date, salted bombs have been conceived of and discussed, but not officially built or tested.

In addition to the potency of the nuclear energy and efficiency of the yield, military strategists must classify the purpose of the types of nuclear weapons and consider specific delivery systems to transport and place weapons in enemy territory. The U.S. government classifies nuclear weapons into two categories: strategic and tactical. Strategic weapons are designed to be used on targets as part of a calculated plan like on nuclear missile locations, military command centers, and large cities. By threatening large targets with high yield bombings, strategic weapons are used as part of the doctrine of deterrence in order to instill fear and panic in the enemy. Tactical weapons are meant for use in battle with the limited capacity to destroy military, communications, or infrastructure targets. However, many weapons, such as the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, apply to both categories.

Once nuclear bombs have been classified, U.S. military strategists contemplate the specific delivery mechanisms, including gravity bombs, cruise missiles, submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Bombers usually carry gravity bombs and cruise missiles because they can fly at sub-sonic speeds of up to 15240 meters and are visible, flexible, and recallable strategic assets. Gravity bombs are designed to be dropped from planes, which require that the weapon can withstand vibrations and changes in air temperature and pressure during the flight. Aircraft Bombers can use various air-dropping techniques, such as toss bombing, parachute-retarded delivery, and laydown modes that are intended to give the aircraft time to escape the explosion. Large aircrafts delivered the heavy “Little Boy”, “Fat Man”, and early thermonuclear weapons as gravity bombs. While gravity bombs have the advantage of providing flexibility to be recalled prior to release, much lead-time is required for planning and transportation. Cruise missiles can fly at low altitude using an automated guidance system, making them harder to detect and intercept. They can penetrate heavily defended areas without risk to the aircraft and crew and can be launched from international airspace. However, certain terrain factors can limit their employment flexibility.

Ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) and land-based stationary silos are designed to deliver ballistic missiles against assigned targets and have significant strategic advantages. SSBNs are constantly on patrol, hidden in the ocean depths, to provide a worldwide launch ability to send out long range missiles. Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) can penetrate heavily defended areas without risk to the crew, be launched in international waters, strike the target in nominal time, maintain maximum stealth and surprise prior to launch, have flexibility targeting capabilities, and carry multiple warheads. However, SSBNs cannot recall missiles already launched. In addition, delivering multiple warheads requires extensive prior planning. Land-based stationary silos launch Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) are on constant alert that can immediately employ missiles that strike their intended targets within 30 minutes of launch. Like SLBMs, ICBMs can infiltrate solidly protected locations without risk to the crew, hit targets in minimum time, and carry multiple warheads. ICBMs are also not recallable, and have the added risk of a booster (rocket that augments the lift capability of a core launch vehicle flight) falling on U.S. or Canadian territory. Despite a few difficulties, bombers, ballistic missile submarines and silos provide the maximum advantages of safety, accuracy, and efficacy. The expansion of delivery systems complements growing nuclear weapon sophistication, potency, and effectiveness. Delivery systems not only facilitate, but also maximize the destructive effects of nuclear weapons implemented against enemy targets.

Examining the developmental procedures of various types of nuclear weapons illuminates the capacity of human intellect to continually advance technological knowledge and innovation. Scientists have exhibited their growing potential to harness and channel the infinite power of nuclear energy into admirably potent yet horrific weapons. The increasing refinement of bomb fuel, bomb design, and delivery systems demonstrates that humanity has journeyed into an era in which military power, especially exemplified by the possession of nuclear weapons, determines the dominance of a nation on the world stage. The advances in nuclear weapons closely blend science and government, evident by the U.S. government’s nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the nation’s current arsenal of ready-to-use weapons delivery mechanisms. However, powerful nations like the U.S. that have asserted their power through their military force provide for an uneasy and unsettling international community. Ultimately, investigating the expansion of nuclear weapon capabilities helps humanity appreciate its scientific brilliance yet warns of its manipulation to potentially instill worldwide anxiety, panic, and desolation.

Sources

“Atomic Physics.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Physics/.

“Nuclear Fission.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission1.shtml

“Nuclear Fusion.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fusion/Fusion1.shtml

“Nuclear Matters: A Practical Guide 2008 Edition.” The Office of the Deputy Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Matters, 2008, Accessed 21 December 2008,

http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nmbook/index.htm.

Brian, Marshall. “What’s a Uranium Centrifuge?” HowStuffWorks.com, 26 October 2006, Accessed 06 January 2009, http://science.howstuffworks.com/uranium-centrifuge.htm.

Freudenrich, Ph.D., Craig, and John Fuller. “How Nuclear Bombs Work.” HowStuffWorks.com, 5 October 2000, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://science.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-bomb.htm.

Hansell, Cristina. “Nuclear Weapons in the World.” Critical Issues Forum, 4 December 2008, Accessed 21 December 2008, http://homepage.mac.com/cifproject/FILES/PLAN2009/Hansell_Cristina_1.htm.

Monterey Institute Center for Nonproliferation Studies. “A Primer on WMD.” Nuclear Threat Initiative, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.nti.org/f_wmd411/f1a.html.

Settle, Dr., Frank. “Nuclear Chemistry and the Community.” Kennesaw State University, 2005, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://chemcases.com/nuclear/index.htm#Nuclear%20Energy%20for%20Power%20and.

Settle, Dr., Frank. “Nuclear Chemistry: The Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation.” Kennesaw State University, 2005, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://chemcases.com/nuclear/nc-14.htm.

Sublette, Carey. “Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions Section 1.0 Types of Nuclear Weapons.” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, 3 July 2007, Accessed 21 December 2008, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.html.

Tamil Nadu Science Forum. “Facts about Nuclear Weapons 2^nd Edition.” Indian Scientists Against Nuclear Weapons, May 1999, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.isanw.org/facts/.

Endnotes

^[1] “Uranium.” Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division, Updated 01/05/2004, Accessed 06 January 2009, http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/92.html.

^[2] “Nuclear Chain Reactions.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission2.shtml.

^[3] “The Hydrogen Bomb: The Basics.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fusion/Fusion2.shtml.

^[4] Freudenrich, Ph.D., Craig, and John Fuller. “How Nuclear Bombs Work.” HowStuffWorks.com, 5 October 2000, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://science.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-bomb.htm.

^[5] “Little Boy: A Gun-Type Bomb.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission7.shtml

^[6] “Fat Man: Implosion-Type Bomb.” The Atomic Archive, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission9.shtml

^[7] Sublette, Carey. “Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions Section 1.0 Types of Nuclear Weapons.” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, 3 July 2007, Accessed 21 December 2008, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.html.

^[8] Settle, Dr., Frank. “Nuclear Chemistry: The Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation.” Kennesaw State University, 2005, Accessed 22 December 2008, http://chemcases.com/nuclear/nc-14.htm.

^[9] Sublette, Carey. “Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions Section 1.0 Types of Nuclear Weapons.” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, 3 July 2007, Accessed 21 December 2008, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.html.

Effects of Nuclear weapons testing

Nuclear weapons tests are controlled detonation experiments used to measure the viability and effectiveness of many designs and types of nuclear devices. Since the first nuclear test at Trinity on July 16, 1945, almost every country that has nuclear weapons has tested them at some point. Nuclear tests are not only used to gather information; many tests have taken place for political effect, and most countries with nuclear weapons publicly demonstrated their status through a nuclear test. Depending on the type of test, different locations are used. Besides the desired political, military, or scientific results of nuclear weapons testing, there are unknown and unpredicted environmental, health, and social effects. This section will study the different types of nuclear and related testing that has and continues to occur, the location of test explosions, and the dangers posed to the people conducting, the surrounding environments, and the ecosystems located in nuclear testing areas.

The type of test is determined by the category of the nuclear device, the status of the nuclear program of the country performing the test, and the type of information they are trying to gather. Early in a nuclear weapons program, most nuclear tests are simply performed to test the effectiveness of Plutonium based implosion devices, as Uranium based “shotgun” devices can be tested on a basic level without the use of radioactive material. Fusion, or thermonuclear weapons, which are driven by a fission explosion, must always contain fissile material to be tested effectively. Many nuclear tests are performed simply to demonstrate or observe the explosion of a new design of nuclear device. Some of these tests involve placing objects in the path of the explosion or shockwave, such as a residential home, a grounded plane, or trees.

http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/movies/effct01a.mov

(A residential home being destroyed by a nuclear test)

http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/movies/effct02a.mov

(A military plane being destroyed by a nuclear test)

http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/movies/effct03a.mov

(A forest in the path a nuclear shockwave due to testing)

Beyond these basic tests of yield and effectiveness, or tests for political or strategic reasons, tests can be more scientific. Once a nuclear program is well established, hydro-nuclear and hydrodynamic nuclear tests can take place. Hydrodynamic tests use the same assemblies used for actual nuclear devices, but are performed using high explosives and non-fissile isotopes. Similar quantities of U-238 and Pu-242, which replace U-235 and Pu-239, are placed in the assemblies where they are detonated, causing pressure and shock force. In the same way fissile isotopes reach critical mass and undergo fission, these non-fissile isotopes liquefy. These tests allow closer examination through the use of radiographs to gather data. This data is then used in computer simulations to predict how a fissile nuclear weapon would react. Hydrodynamic tests combined with computer simulation provide the only way of testing new designs without full detonations. ^[[1]] A hydronuclear test uses actual assemblies as well as fissile material when detonated. Hydronuclear experiments are designed to test devices that include some inert material or less-fissile material for Pu-239 in the implosion pit, so that instead of a full implosion, only a very small yield is produced (equivalent to anywhere from milligrams to metric tons of TNT). ^[[2]] In 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, which prohibits all types of nuclear explosions, was signed by 150 nations. This treaty was left unsigned by both India and Pakistan, which held their own nuclear tests in 1998. For nations that respect the treaty, other types of tests are used to simulate various parts of a nuclear explosion. These tests generally use some combination of high explosives and carefully planned detonations. Since these tests do not include fissile material they do not qualify as nuclear tests, even though they contribute to research and designs for nuclear devices.

Until the middle of 1963, most nuclear tests took place in the atmosphere and were conducted by the US military or the USSR. During this time, there were also many tests performed underground, below the surface of the ocean, remote and or desolate land locations. Since the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed in 1963, all USA, UK, and the USSR tests have taken place underground. French and Chinese tests, not subject to the terms of this treaty, transitioned to exclusively underground over a longer period. ^[[3]]

There are two main types of atmospheric tests. The most common takes place in a tower with the device detonated at the top or suspended from a tethered balloon. These tests are generally located in a desolate or isolated region such as a desert, tundra, or uninhabited island. The Trinity test was one example, and since then, this method has been the most used form of nuclear testing. The other style of Atmospheric testing takes place kilometers into the atmosphere, up to as high as 10 km above sea level. These tests are generally used for extremely powerful devices, and have been used much less frequently. Atmospheric tests are very obvious, and are usually used for politically motivated reasons. They result in a massive air shockwave, blinding light viewable from many kilometers away, and a cloud of fallout that can travel long distances depending on wind speed and direction.

Underground testing takes place in holes drilled hundreds of meters below the earth’s crust. Many of these holes are drilled under the ocean in coral rims or atolls. Once the device is placed at the bottom, it is detonated. The idea of underground testing is to completely contain the effects of a nuclear blast. The surface above the explosion, either land or ocean, may form a crater, hill of debris, or waves and tremors similar to seismic activity can be detected. At the time of explosion, due to the intense heat and pressure, the assembly and surrounding matter are vaporized. The expanding superheated gas and shockwave will create a cavity proportional to the yield of the device. The formula for this size is:

rc = r¹c e(1/3)

Usually, r¹c is approximately 10 -12m/kt(1/3), so that a 1 kiloton explosion produces a cavity with a radius of 10-12m, depending on the depth of the explosion and surrounding material. ^[[4]] After the explosion, molten rock cools and hardens at the bottom of the cavity, and as the gas pressure depletes the cavity will collapse over a period of minutes to hours.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/NTS_test_preparation2.jpg

In preparation for an underground nuclear test, the two craters are collapsed cavities from previous tests.

Oceanic testing occurs in mid-ocean, on or near islands or atolls, placed on a barge, or dropped from a plane, and can be conducted near or below the surface of the ocean. Many of these explosions, apart from their geographical location, function in a very similar way to atmospheric tests. The only differences occur when the device in question is placed in a barge or detonated below the surface. These explosions generate a lot of steam due to the heat of the blast, and the explosions can cause violent waves. Oceanic testing, like atmospheric testing, is impossible to hide unless it is conducted at extreme depths, which is dangerous because these explosions have the possibility of creating very large waves.

http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/images/bakerb.jpg

A picture of the Baker shot from Project Crossroads, an oceanic test conducted by the USA at Bikini Atoll. The column is mainly steam, and the ships in view are a part of the graveyard of WWII era naval vessels.

The after-effects of nuclear testing, predominantly health and environmental, occur both before and after detonation. Before detonation, they are felt by those in the process of assembling the devices and producing the raw nuclear material used in the tests. From uranium miners all the way up to those working in close proximity to the device anyone who handled, or worked closely with U-238, U-235, or Pu-239 was exposed to varying degrees of radiation, which is acknowledged to cause many types of cancer. The risk to miners and others on the low end of nuclear device production are also at risk of being exposed to fatal amounts of poisonous heavy metals. Early fission research, particularly the first attempts to reach critical mass released unpredicted amounts of radiation and energy. These accidents, known as “Criticality Accidents”, occur particularly when assembling the core of a nuclear device, or a critical/near critical mass of fissile material. Such an accident was responsible for killing two members of the assembly team at Trinity. ^[[5]] Once a device is assembled, moved to its test site, and detonated, many new problems begin.

Fission of heavy isotopes like U-235 and Pu-239 produce many different combinations of daughter isotopes, but there are three isotopes in particular that are the most common and most dangerous. Many of the residual elements after fission are radioactive, but most have an extremely short half-life, posing little widespread risk. The three that last long enough to cause serious damage are Strontium-90 (Sr-90), Iodine-131 (I-131), and Caesium-137 (Cs-137). Strontium-90, which has a half-life of approximately 29.1 years, is a part of the group of metals containing Calcium and is therefore processed in the same way by the body. After it is absorbed, through respiration or ingestion of contaminated material, it ends up in bones, where it ionizes molecules with ß- radiation. Sr-90 from fallout was involved in serious milk contamination during the 1950s, as well as polluting soil and water at reprocessing plants. Sr-90 is connected to Leukemia and other marrow cancers. Iodine-131, with a half-life of 8.07 days, poses less of a threat, but is still connected to thyroid cancer. Because the thyroid uses iodine to create hormones, I-131 can be included in the process causing damage. I-131 was also connected to milk contamination through pollution of grazing fields. Cesium-137, with a half-life of about 30 years, is one of the most dangerous byproducts of fission. Cs-137 reacts in a way comparable to potassium, which is deposited in the tissues of animals and plants that are exposed to it. Cs-137 has been connected to many different cancers, and also to contaminated milk during the 1950s.

The environments of nuclear tests emerge in many different conditions depending on the types of tests and the number of tests conducted. Because nuclear weapons are so powerful, there are immense physical changes to the areas tested. Underground tests in particular completely change the subterranean structure and contaminate soil. Oceanic tests can devastate coral reefs, particularly when coupled with underground tests in holes bored into the reefs. While most tests are conducted in remote areas with little wildlife, fallout clouds from atmospheric tests can travel great distances even with light winds. When these clouds settle, or are brought down to earth through precipitation, they can contaminate ground water, soil, and as such move on to contaminate animals and plants in the same area. The aforementioned milk problems in the 1950s arose because cows ate contaminated grass and passed on radioactive isotopes, which were then consumed by people. High level atmospheric tests are known to disrupt communications, as well as spread radioactive material throughout the atmosphere.

Historically, the people most at risk for fallout were the relatively uninformed soldiers and military personnel onsite for nuclear tests. Most were not given protective clothing or adequate distance between them and the test site. In the case of atmospheric tests, planes were flown through the fallout cloud to collect samples, exposing the pilots to hazardous radiation, and as the dust settled, decontamination, which was barely understood, consisted mainly of just basic washing. Many soldiers were exposed to many tests, and as such, many have developed and died of the many cancers connected to exposure to radioactivity. These veterans, found worldwide, have trouble proving their connection to nuclear tests depending on their country. Many countries including the UK have refused to make military medical records public, making it impossible to prove many veterans’ connection to nuclear tests. British veterans have fought many court battles, but never received compensation because of the lack of evidence demonstrating a degree of exposure. Other countries, such as the United States and New Zealand accepted responsibility for the health problems caused by conducting nuclear tests and began compensation programs for test personnel, uranium miners, mill workers, transporters, and sometimes even downwinders, those in the path and immediate area of a nuclear test. The payment amounts are based on how involved a person was involved in the tests. Uranium miners and test personal receive more money and lenient terms, downwinders receive less money with slightly more strict terms.

Nuclear tests are merely experiments that attempt to understand some of the most powerful and dangerous scientific principles humans have discovered. As more is learned, bigger and more powerful weapons are designed and further tests are needed. The effects of these tests, particularly due to the slow rate that the negative effects are felt, took time to be understood, and as new bans were drafted the dangers grew smaller and smaller. The problem the world now faces, with nuclear countries outside of anti-test treaties and countries working to develop nuclear weapons, is that of new tests, threatening not only new nuclear powers, but continued radioactive pollution of the earth.

Bibliography

1. “Environmental Effects of French Nuclear Testing” cyberplace.org.nz. Accessed 8 Jan. 2009. http://canterbury.cyberplace.org.nz/peace/nukenviro.html

2. “Applications of Caesium-137 in Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Studies” exeter.ac.uk. Accessed 12 Jan. 2009. http://people.exeter.ac.uk/yszhang/caesium/welcome.htm

3. “Strontium” pubs.acs.org. Accessed 12 Jan. 2009. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/strontium.html

4. “The Baby Teeth Study” berkeleycitizen.org. Accessed 12 Jan. 2009. http://www.berkeleycitizen.org/environ/baby.html

5. “Radioisotope Brief: Cesium-137” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed 12 Jan. 2009. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/cesium.asp

6. “Radioisotope Brief: Iodine-131” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed 12 Jan. 2009. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/isotopes/iodine.asp

7. “Nuclear Weapons: Effects of Nuclear Testing” Come Clean – WMD awareness Programme. Accessed 7 Jan. 2009. http://www.comeclean.org.uk/articles.php?articleID=16

8. “Groups Call on Congress to Move Quickly to Help Victims” Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. Accessed 13 Jan. 2009. http://www.ieer.org/latest/nasrecapr.html

9. “Radiocesium in White-tailed Deer on the Savannah River Site” The University of Georgia. Accessed 11 Jan. 2009. http://www.uga.edu/srel/Snapshots/white_tailed_deer.htm

10. “Radiation Exposure Compensation Program” United States Department of Justice. Accessed 8 Jan. 2009. http://www.usdoj.gov/civil/torts/const/reca/about.htm

11. “Criticality and Radiation Accidents” Center for Digital Discourse and Discussion @ Virginia Tech. Accessed 9 Jan. 2009. http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/accident/index.html

12. “Effects of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear War” Center for Digital Discourse and Discussion @ Virginia Tech. Accessed 9 Jan. 2009. http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/index.html

13. “Years of Atmospheric Testing” Center for Digital Discourse and Discussion @ Virginia Tech. Accessed 9 Jan. 2009. http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/atmosphr/index.html

14. “Nuclear Weapon Testing” Weapons of Mass Destruction. Accessed 5 Jan. 2009. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/nuke-test.htm

15. “Nuclear Weapon Underground Testing” Weapons of Mass Destruction. Accessed 5 Jan. 2009. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/ugt.htm

16. “Nuclear Weapon Hydronuclear Testing” Weapons of Mass Destruction. Accessed 5 Jan. 2009. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/hydronuclear.htm

“Nuclear Weapon Hydrodynamic Testing” Weapons of Mass Destruction. Accessed 5 Jan. 2009. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/hydrodynamic.htm

Objective II

The lust for power

In any aspect of human achievement, the most sought after positions are either the very top of the status quo, or else as close to the top as one can get. Considering that ones position within the status quo is determined by ones importance, or in other words, by ones power, it is not surprising that so many countries have sought to acquire as many Nuclear weapons as they possibly can. The reasons for countries to have sought to acquire so many nuclear weapons are partly military and partly political. They are to gain an immediate tactical and strategic advantage against their enemies, to gain the respect of those nations that already have them and set themselves thus in their company, or to try to become the most important in the Nuclear-equipped group by constructing the most amount of and most powerful nuclear weapons possible.

The first reason why countries want to get nuclear weapons is to gain an immediate tactical and strategic advantage over their neighbors or enemies. One instance in which this has occurred is during the final months of World War II, when the United States was poised to invade Japan and end perhaps the greatest episode of suffering known to humankind. Having heard from renowned physicists Albert Einstein and Robert Oppenheimer that Germany was gaining the capacity to build an atomic bomb several years before, US President Franklin Roosevelt commissioned a team of scientists headed by Oppenheimer to construct and test an atomic bomb for use against the axis powers. Several years later, in 1945, Germany collapsed; the Empire of Japan was reduced to only its home islands. It was by now a forgone conclusion that the Allies were going to win the war. However, the US was still faced with the daunting task of invading Japan, a proposition that military experts estimated would cost the US hundreds of thousands of soldiers and millions of Japanese soldiers and civilians. To avoid this, the decision was made to use the fruits of Oppenhiemer’s research in the form of two atomic bombs on two of the few Japanese cities that had not been bombed, and thus hopefully convince the Japanese to surrender. There was also the political value of displaying the power of these weapons and that the United States had them. This illustrates the first reason as to why countries build nuclear weapons; they’re simply a bigger bomb to use against their enemies. Countries are constantly searching for a way to overpower their enemies and this is one of the reasons why Nuclear Weapons were developed. But while nuclear missiles are powerful weapons, the military value of them does not explain why countries have so many.

Any military analyst today knows that only about ten or twenty missiles is a sufficient number to utterly destroy any country. This does not explain why some countries have hundreds or even thousands of them. After the use of the two atomic weapons against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki displayed the awesome potential of nuclear power, many other countries around the world sought to gain nuclear weapons of their own, particularly the Soviet Union. Having an almost habitual tradition of distrust of their western allies, Russia, during and after World War Two, was intensely suspicious of all American and British actions and motives. Discovering that the US was in possession of Nuclear weapons did nothing to alleviate them. Soviet intelligence had already made contact with several members of the Anglo/American intelligence community who had access to top secret information about the nuclear program and who duly passed them along to their new Soviet masters. Four months later, the Soviet Union successfully tested its own nuclear bomb, and relations with the west quickly became worse. Each county started building as many and as powerful nuclear weapons as it possibly could in preparation for a war, which seemed inevitable. However, while both countries built the nuclear weapons, neither was willing to fire the first shot. Since nuclear weapons were well known to have previously unimagined destructive abilities, neither government was willing to start a conflict that, in the end, would destroy everything worth fighting over. However, both countries continued to build massive armories of Nuclear weapons. The basic reason for this was politics. It looked good on paper and in the minds of each country’s respective peoples to know that they were greater than their opponents, even if that greatness had not been proven in battle.

The final reason for countries desiring nuclear power is in order to gain respect. Small less developed nations building or seeking to build nuclear weapons might do so less out of an actual military need and more out of the desire to stand toe to toe with their more advanced and more respected counterparts. One instance of this is in the case of North Korea, which tested first nuclear weapon in 2006. North Korea lacks several of the basic requirements befitting an industrialized nation. Severe droughts, famine and famine-related diseases permeate the country, which also suffers under one of the most oppressive communist dictatorships today. Despite these conditions however, North Korea has continued to develop its nuclear weapons program and has spent millions of dollars worth of its national income in the process. Unlike the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incident, North Korea has no immediate targets that it would use its nuclear weapons on, once it gets them. Its present enemies namely South Korea, Japan and the United States, are all either unreachable, or too heavily defended by their political situation to be worth attacking. The reason that North Korea has chosen to lavish its national resources on nuclear weapons can therefore only be that having said weapons has become something of a mark of honor worn by countries that would otherwise be utterly ignored.

The reasons for a country to desire nuclear weapons are partly military and partly political. While Nuclear weapons pose an impressive addition to any army’s arsenal, their purpose is also so that a country might boast of them to add to the amount of fear and respect that their country’s name implies.

Bibliography:

1. "US confirms nuclear claim". New York Times (2006-10-15). Retrieved on 2006-10-16.

2. Rezelman, David; F.G. Gosling and Terrence R. Fehner (2000). "THE ATOMIC BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA". The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-09-18. page on Hiroshima casualties.

Glossary of Terms

Word	Definition
Absorber	Absorber is a material that absorbs alpha particles and beta particles in order to prevent ionizing radiation
Acute Exposure	Acute Exposure is exposure to a large amount of radiation or smaller amounts of radiation only lasting a short span of time
Acute Radiation Syndrome	Acute Radiation Syndrome is when people become sick due to a high dose of exposure to radiation whether it is from one instance or a long period of time.
Angstrom	Angstrom is a unit that measures the wavelength of visible, ultraviolet, and X-Ray regions
Atomic Bomb	Atomic Bomb is a nuclear bomb whose central source of energy comes from the fission of uranium and plutonium
Base Surge	Base Surge is a cloud that spreads up and out, due to the explosion being underground
Becquerel	Becquerel measures the radioactivity in an environment where a nucleus decays every second
Beryllium	Beryllium is a toxic, gray metal that is used as a moderator, reflector, or cladding material. Beryllium causes the neutrons to bounce back into the nuclear reaction when surrounding fissile.
Binding Energy	Binding Energy is the total amount of energy necessary to hold and separate the neutrons and protons within the nucleus
Blanket	Blanket is a nuclear material formed into a layer that has the ability of absorbing neutrons and decays
Blast	Blast occurs after a nuclear weapon is detonated releasing an extreme amount of energy and pressure in a short amount of time
Boomers	Boomers are submarines that launch nuclear weapons and is about 560 feet in length. Boomers were built with a smooth and slim finish allowing it to travel faster than other submarines. It was also made to store diving planes, radar masts, radio antennas, and periscopes. Boomers were used during the Cold War.
Breeder Reactor	Breeder Reactor is a nuclear generator that is able to produce more energy than it actually needs to run
Calutron	Calutron was a machine built by Ernest O. Lawrence used to separate Uranium 235
Centifruge	Centrifuge is a machine used for uranium enrichment and separating different levels of uranium isotopes.
Cesium	Cesium is a gamma ray that irradiates material
Chain Reaction	Chain Reaction is when fission occurs releasing neutrons and energy and causing another fission reaction
Clean Weapon	Clean Weapon is a weapon that was designed to decrease the amount of radioactivity that would remain
Cobalt-60	Cobalt-60 is a gamma ray source used to treat material that is exposed to radiation
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)	The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty is an international treaty that does not allow nuclear explosion. This treaty also formed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization that makes sure that all nations comply with this treaty. The idea of whether or not entry in force will be allowed in states with nuclear ground reactors is dependent on if all 44 states a part of this treaty agree to sign this amendment, currently 11 have not.
Compton Effect	Compton Effect is when electrons of atoms scatter photons. When a photon and an electron impact each other, energy of the photon is given off. A photon with less energy than the previous photon goes in another direction at the angle of the primary photon’s motion.
Containment Building	Containment Building holds a nuclear reactor and is made of steel-reinforced concrete to make sure radioactive material does not seep out
Control Rods	Control Rods are rods that are placed in the reactor core in order to absorb neutrons and monitor the speed of the chain reaction
Coolant	Coolant is a substance that is used to slow the movement of the neutrons in order to cool the reactor off
Cooling Pools	Cooling Pools tanks of water in nuclear power plants where spent rods are placed before they are recycled or thrown away
Core	Core is the center station of a nuclear reactor consisting of fuel, moderator, and other support structures
Cow	Cow is a system that generates radioisotopes
Critical Mass	Critical Mass the maximum amount of nuclear substance necessary to cause a chain reaction
Cruise Missiles	Cruise missile is a vehicle that is able to guide itself technologically and it built to glide through the air. Its purpose being to transport nuclear weapons.
Curie (Ci)	Curie (Ci) is a unit used to measure radioactivity comparative to 1 gram of pure radium
Decay	Decay is the decrease in radioactivity through time and the random charge of nuclei, alpha, and beta particles
Decontamination	Decontamination is lessening or taking away radioactive material
Deuterium	Deuterium, D2 is a natural hydrogen isotope that is the “heavy” form of water, but is more stable than regular water, H2O.
Dirty Bomb	Dirty Bomb is an explosive device containing radioactive material that will spread when the bomb is detonated
Dose	Dose is the amount of radiation and energy absorbed for a certain mass content
Electromagnetic Pulse	Electromagnetic Pulse occurs after a nuclear explosion and targets anything that is electronic and disables it
Enhanced Radiation Weapons	enhanced radiation weapons are also known as neutrons and have enough nuclear energy, that when detonated can penetrate through metal and destroy and kill what is inside.
Epicenter	Epicenter is the center of the explosion
Fat Man	Fat Man was the nuclear fission bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945 killing 74,000 and injuring 75,000 people
Fissile Isotopes	Fissile Isotopes are isotopes whose nuclei are easily split by neutrons
Fissile Materials	Fissile materials are atoms that can be split by neutrons in a chain reaction that is able to provide its own energy
Fission	The process in which a heavy nucleus separates into two or more nuclei, releasing energy that may spread into other nuclei and cause them to be unstable. For example:
Fusion	Contrary to fission, is the process in which two light nuclei come together to form a single heavy nucleus that has a greater binding energy than the two formerly separated nuclei.
Fussionable Materials	Fussionable materials are atoms that can be combined in order to release energy
Gamma Ray Ground Station	Gamma Ray Ground Station is a cite dedicated to the research and experimentation of Gamma Rays
Gas Centriguge	Gas-Centrifuge Process is isotope separation from heavy to light by centrifuge force
Gas-Graphite Reactor	Gas-Graphite Reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses gas as its coolant and graphite as its moderator
Gravity Bombs	gravity bombs are bombs dropped from a plane that simply fall in the air following a basic Ballistic trajectory down to the earth
Half Life	Half Life time taken for the radioactivity of an isotope to decrease by half
Heavy water	Heavy Water is the combination of water but instead of hydrogen and the bonding element, deuterium is, D2O.
High-level Waste	High-level waste is radioactivity from the recycling of spent fuel containing transuranic waste and fission products
Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU)	Highly Enriched Uranium is an isotope of U-235 that is concentrated at 20%
Implosion Weapon	Implosion Weapon is a weapon that places its fissionable materials under pressure for maximum explosion
Induced Radioactivity	Induced Radioactivity occurs when neutrons are held along with unstable radioactive nuclei
Initial Radiation	Initial Radiation: is the radiation that occurs once the nuclear weapon explodes and lasts as long as the fireball is present, representing only 3% of the total energy the nuclear explosion is capable of.
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)	Intercontinental Balistic Missiles are missiles that can travel more than 5,000 km away to hit a target. It has the special ability to follow its trajectory and lock on its target.
International Atomic Energy Agency	International Atomic Energy Agency is an organization that holds its headquarters in Vienna, Austria and was founded as a "Atoms for Peace" organization in 1957. This agency aims at providing safety, science, and verification regarding nuclear peace between their international members.
Iodine	Iodine is created in nuclear explosions, but also exists naturally
Irradiate	Irradiate is to expose radiation
Isomatric Transition	Isometric Transition a radioactive decay that causes the nucleus to decrease forma higher to a lower energy state
KeV	KeV represents 1,000 electron volts
Kilotons	Kilotons is the power of approximately 1,000 tons of TNT (trinitrotoluene)
Late Effects	Late Effects are results of nuclear radiation that occur over some period of time in the form of damage of organs, bone marrow, and lenses of the eyes
Little Boy	Little Boy was the nuclear fission bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan on August 6, 1945, yielding a power of 12.5 kilotons killing 80, 000 and injuring 120,000 people
Low Enriched Uranium (LEU)	Low Enriched Uranium is an isotope of U-235 that is concentrated at less than 20%
Low-level Waste	Low-level waste is spent fuel of byproduct materials
Manhattan Project	Manhattan Project was the secret name the U. S. called their work in developing an atomic bomb, led by General Leslie Groves and physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer in Los Alamos, New Mexico
Mass Defect	Mass Defect is the deference of the mass of an atom’s nucleus, which is less than the sum of its parts
Megatons	Megatons is the power of approximately one million TNT
MeV	MeV a unit that measures energy and is equal to 1.6 x 10^-6 erg and for every nucleus that goes through the fission process, 200 MeV of energy is produced
Milling	Milling is a process in the uranium fuel cycle that turns the small percentage of uranium oxide in ore into a higher percentage called yellow cake
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)	Missile Technology Control Regime was formed in April 1987 by states who cared about the proliferation of nuclear weapons and technology.
Mixed-oxide fuel (MOX)	Mixed-oxide fuel (MOX) is a nuclear fuel that contains plutonium and uranium dioxide often used as a substitute for uranium dioxide fuel in nuclear reactors
Moderator	Moderator slows down neutrons making it easier of being absorbed by fissile material Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) is the circumstance between nations that contain a nuclear weapons and if they were to use one on each other than they both would face dire consequences
Nuclear Weapons States(NWS)	Nuclear Weapon States include the following nations: China, France, Russia, the United Kindgom, and the United States. These countries are apart of a nuclear nonproliferation treaty which is the code that they have all agreed to be apart of. Therefore, all states have the ability to maintain their weapons. But, they are not allowed to give thier weapons to any other country, or a nation that is a Non-nuclear Weapon State. Instead they must strive towards preventing others from obtaining them and encouraging others to disarm they ones they have currently in stock.
Neutrino	Neutrino is the product of nuclear reactions becoming an electrically neutral particle that has almost no mass
Neutron Generator	neutron generator is a tool that is used to create neutrons with a high energy level by forcing deuterium^2 and deuterium^3 ions into and area with even more isotopes, and when these ions run into each other they form more neutrons.
No-dongs	No-dongs are missiles built by North Korea having a flying range from 1300km to 1500km. These missiles were made to target areas where there is a great amount of people. It was developed in the 1980s and was used in 1998.
Nuclear Armaments	Nuclear Armaments are nuclear weapons
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty	Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed on July 1, 1968 and put into action on March 5, 1970 as a contract between different nations stating that they would stop trying to obtain nuclear weapons as well as help with nuclear disarmament. The nations participating in this treaty were allowed to research produce and use nuclear energy in positive and peaceful ways such as fueling electricity and having a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear Proliferation	Nuclear Proliferation is to produce nuclear weapons
Nuclear Regulatory Commission	Nuclear Regulatory Commission is responsible for updating the list of names, addresses, and telephone numbers of the people that deal with sending or receiving nuclear waste, published in the Final Register
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)	The Nuclear Suppliers Group is a group of 45 countries who are dedicated to nonproliferation by means of establishing and enforcing guidelines for the transpotation and exportation of nuclear power between the partcipating countries of NSG that they have all accepted. NSG has specific regulations for the exportation of nuclear materials, tools and sources needed to develop a nuclear reactor, elements and chemicals necessary for the proces of forming nuclear energy, as well as materials that are used and not used for nuclear power. This group was formed in 1975 in London.
Nucleon	Nucleon is a neutron or a proton
Nulear Materials	Nuclear Materials include fissile, fussionable, and source materials that are used in nuclear weapons
Oralloy	Oralloy is highly enriched Uranium -235
Overpressure	Overpressure is formed by the shock wave in an explosion, which exceeds the limit a certain area can endure
P5+1	P5 + 1 include Russia, China, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Germany also known as the Nuclear Weapons States
Photon	Photon is the unit used to measure electromagnetic radiation
Plutonium	Plutonium in its natural state is found in low quantities and the majority of it is produced by a nuclear reactor and the absorption of neutrons of Uranium
Primary	Primary is the catalyst of the fusion reaction Reprocessing is a mechanical and chemical process that separates energy from spent fuel
Rad	Rad is a unit of absorbed radiation
Radioactive Fallout	Fallout Radiation is carried out by wind from the explosion site to other areas if initially raised high enough off the ground, instead of coming directly back to the ground.
Residual radiation	Residual radiation is a result of the physical objects, such as the nuclear weapon itself, fission products, and even the ground where the explosion took place is impacted, this radiation may last a very short time or several years.
Salted Weapons	salted weapons use cobalt to produce its thermonuclear reaction producing radioactive fall out that last longer than the radioactive fallout produced from weapons that do not use cobalt.
Scud Missile	The Scud Missile was developed in the 1960s by the Soviet Union. This missile has the ability to hold a 200 pund warhead, travel up to 100 or even 180 miles, and also carry chemicals or diseases.
Secondary	Secondary is the part of a nuclear weapon that contains the elements that are needed to start the fusion reaction of a thermonuclear explosion
Shahab Missile	Shahab is an Iranian missile that can travel 800 miles and runs off of 20% gas and 80% kerosene.
Shock Wave	Shock Wave is ignited by the spread of hot gases of a nuclear explosion, creating a pressure that travels continuously through the air, water, or ground.
Site W	Site W contains three nuclear reactors responsible for producing plutonium in Hanford, Washington
Site X	Site X was the Oakridge plant developed for the separation of uranium by electromagnetic means and gas diffusion
Site Y	Site Y was where the atomic bombs were designed and tested in Los Alamos, New Mexico
Source Materials	Source materials are extra atomic particles that add support for the fission
SpentFuel	Spent Fuel is nuclear fuel after it has been used by a nuclear reactor
Stable	Stable is an element that is not radioactive
Staged Radiation Implosion Weapons	staged radiation implosion weapon uses a chemical explosion to start nuclear fission by compacting the fission fuel which is commonly deuterium or even tritium. The material that is containing the fission fuel now becomes plasma because of the heat that was reflected on it. The heat then seeps through the outer layer of foam and the fission fuel catches on fire.
Strategic Nuclear Weapons	strategic nuclear weapons are long range missiles and bombs, intercontinental ballistic missiles, submarine launched ballistic missiles.
Sub-critical	sub-critical mass is when a fission reaction is below critical mass due to the fact that one or less neutron runs into a U-235 atom.
Submarine Submersible Ballistic Nuclear (SSBN)	Submarine Submersible Ballistic Nuclear is a submarine that can shoot nuclear weapons.
Super-critical	super-critical mass is the opposite of sub-critical mass and is above critical mass due to the fact that more 1 neutron runs into a U-235 atom.
Tactic Nuclear Weapons	tactical nuclear weapons, bombs, shells, and short range missiles that are used on the battlefield
The BRAVO Test	The BRAVO Test was the detonation of a Hydrogen Bomb by lithium deuteride on Bikini Island by the United States on March 1, 1954 and produced approximately 14.8 megatons of TNT.
The MIKE Test	The MIKE Test was held on November 1, 1952 on the Elugelab Island at the Eniwetok Atoll experimenting what would happen when energy was released from a nuclear fusion. The island was wiped off the planet
Thermal radiation	Thermal Radiation is the energy that is given off after a nuclear explosion left to spread throughout the air. The radiation is released in two in steps by emergence of the fireball. The first is takes only a tenth of a second and is released into our ultra-violet region. The next is only seconds longer and is the majority (99%) of the total radiation energy. Thermal radiation causes irritability of the skin, burns, eye problems, and fire to objects that easily ignite.
Thermonuclear energy	Thermonuclear energy is energy from nuclear fission reactions that occur at high temperatures
Tracer	Tracer is a small quantity of radioisotope responsible for imitating a particular behavior of that system
Transmutation	Transmutation the process of changing elements by irradiation or radioactive particles
Tritium	Tritium is a rare hydrogen isotope that is used to increase the production in fission and thermonuclear reactions
Uranium	Uranium is an element that is found in its natural state underground
Weapons Grade	Weapons Grade is an element or compound that have enough of the specific isotopes necessary for a nuclear weapon.
Yield	Yield is the total amount of energy discharged from an nuclear explosion

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1 Truman, Harry. “Letter on Truman’s Priorities”. July 20, 1945. http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/correspondence/truman-harry/corr_truman_1945-07-20.htm

2 Potsdam Declaration. July 26, 1945.

3 Pape, Robert Anthony. Bombing to Win. Pg. 95 Cornell University Press. 1996.

4 Reischauer, Edwin. (1986). My Life Between Japan And America, p. 101. HarperCollins.

5 Adult Health Study Report 4

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nuke-test.htm>

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ugt.htm>

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